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A Meta-Analysis of Interventions to Reduce Loneliness
Open accessAbstract
Social and demographic trends are placing an increasing number of adults at risk for loneliness, an established risk factor for physical and mental illness. The growing costs of loneliness have led to a number of loneliness reduction interventions. Qualitative reviews have identified four primary intervention strategies: (a) improving social skills, (b) enhancing social support, (c) increasing opportunities for social contact, and (d) addressing maladaptive social cognition. An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness reduction interventions was conducted to quantify the effects of each strategy and to examine the potential role of moderator variables. Results revealed that single-group pre-post and nonrandomized comparison studies yielded larger mean effect sizes relative to randomized comparison studies. Among studies that used the latter design, the most successful interventions addressed maladaptive social cognition. This is consistent with current theories regarding loneliness and its etiology. Theoretical and methodological issues associated with designing new loneliness reduction interventions are discussed.
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“in contrast, some technological interventions for reducing loneliness, as well as animal therapy or robot pets, were not found to significantly reduce loneliness (Masi et al. 2011; Veronese et al. 2021), although other studies find more promising results of such interventions with older adults (Banks, Willoughby, and Banks 2008; Chen et al. 2020; Gasteiger et al. 2021).”
From AI Companions Reduce Loneliness (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. 2011
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In the citing paper
“As a potential stressor, chronic loneliness is closely associated with depressive symptoms, maladaptive social cognition, and poor recovery following a mental health crisis.82–84”
From A Longitudinal Study of Loneliness Before the End of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Trajectories, Predictors, and Impact on Chinese Adolescent Mental Health (2024) · cites this paper as [83]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Interventions that focus on improving social skills and social support are one of the successful strategies that have been used to alleviate loneliness among adult population, as discussed in a previous meta-analysis [163].”
From Association between friendship quality and subjective wellbeing among adolescents: a systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [163]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Most current interventions assume loneliness results from lack of opportunities or competencies to form close relationships (Masi et al., 2011).”
From Young Adult Adaptability to the Social Challenges of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Protective Role of Friendships (2022) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
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“a meta-analysis by Masi et al. (2011) revealed that cognitive approaches (i.e., addressing maladaptive social cognition) were most effective in reducing loneliness compared to other strategies, such as social support.”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al. (2011)
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“as generally effects of loneliness interventions seem to be rather small in randomized group designs (Masi et al., 2011)”
From Feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of an internet-based CBT intervention for loneliness in older adults: A pilot RCT (2024) · cites this paper as Masi et al., 2011
In the citing paper
“Nine out of 10 reviews of these trials report significant reductions in depressive symptoms, 428-436 generally with small effect sizes.”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Bullying at school (and in other settings) is an important target for interventions to avert a strong lifetime risk for depression. 436”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [436]
In the citing paper
“Cacioppo and Cacioppo [30] reviewed data suggesting that experiences of physical warmth/coldness and feelings of social warmth/coldness share similar sensorimotor representations.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“loneliness or perceived social isolation may play a role in modulating the way in which individuals perceive and mirror the expressions and actions of others, particularly nonverbal cues that may indicate social rejection.”
From Loneliness and health in older adults: a mini-review and synthesis (2016) · cites this paper as [30]
In the citing paper
“Psychological approaches, such as Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Mindfulness, have also been used to help people change their thinking about social relationships: some promising results have been reported, especially with older adult populations [77].”
From Associations between loneliness and perceived social support and outcomes of mental health problems: a systematic review (2018) · cites this paper as [77]
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Coping with loneliness: What do older adults suggest?
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Kuczynski, A. M., Halvorson, M. A., Slater, L. R., & Kanter, J. W. (2021) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075211045717 · Cited by 78
Gálvez-Hernández, P., Paz, L. G., & Muntaner, C. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-057729 · Cited by 88
Vanhalst, J., Luyckx, K., Petegem, S. V., & Soenens, B. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0686-4 · Cited by 89
Kotera, Y., Ozaki, A., Miyatake, H., Tsunetoshi, C., Nishikawa, Y., & Tanimoto, T. E. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01514-z · Cited by 79
de Heer, C., Bi, S., Finkenauer, C., Alink, L. R. A., & Maes, M. (2022) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/10775595221103420 · Cited by 83
“…children and adolescents gain social skills and seek social support, it also focuses on helping individuals with maltreatment histories to think more positively about themselves and others which seems to be the most effective aspect of an intervention to reduce loneliness (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundChanging the narrative: Loneliness as a social justice issue
Barreto, M., Doyle, D. M., & Qualter, P. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12965 · Cited by 90
“Qualter, 2021; Masi et al., 2011).”
Theeke, L. A., & Mallow, J. A. (2013) · AJN American Journal of Nursing · doi:10.1097/01.naj.0000434169.53750.14 · Cited by 76
“A recent metaanalysis of intervention studies indicated that interventions aimed at maladaptive social cog nition processes related to loneliness may be the most successful.(46) By decreasing loneliness, nurses can help older adults to improve”
Loneliness in psychosis: A practical review and critique for clinicians.
Badcock, J. C., Adery, L. H., & Park, S. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12345 · Cited by 86
Loneliness and emotion regulation: implications of having social anxiety disorder
Eres, R., Lim, M. H., Lanham, S., Jillard, C., & Bates, G. W. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1904498 · Cited by 86
Zhang, F., You, Z., Fan, C., Gao, C., Cohen, R., Hsueh, Y., & Zhou, Z. (2014) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.06.001 · Cited by 88
“that addressed maladaptive social cognition had a larger mean effect size compared to interventions that addressed social support, social skills, and opportunities for social intervention (Masi et al., 2011).”
Social context and the real-world consequences of social anxiety
Hur, J., DeYoung, K. A., Islam, S., Anderson, A. S., Barstead, M. G., & Shackman, A. J. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719002022 · Cited by 74
“neediness, overreliance) that promote conflict and rejection (Masi et al., 2011; Cacioppo et al., 2015; Kok and Singer, 2017).”
BackgroundFriendship Importance Around the World: Links to Cultural Factors, Health, and Well-Being
Lu, P., Oh, J., Leahy, K. E., & Chopik, W. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570839 · Cited by 89
Macià, D., Cattaneo, G., Sánchez, J. S., Tormos, J. M., Pascual‐Leone, Á., & Bartrés‐Faz, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.627547 · Cited by 88
“However, previous studies and scientific meetings have already stressed the limitations of focusing exclusively on promoting social contact and connectedness (Masi et al., 2011) and identifying risk groups based on health status and socio-economic factors alone, not tailoring interventions to specific root causes (Fri…”
BackgroundEbesutani, C. K., Drescher, C. F., Reise, S. P., Heiden, L. J., Hight, T. L., Damon, J. D., & Young, J. N. (2012) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2012.662188 · Cited by 77
“Loneliness has also more recently begun to be targeted directly by intervention efforts and clinical trials (Frankel et al., 2010; Masi et al., 2011; Menesini, Codecasa, Benelli, & Cowie, 2003).”
BackgroundLoneliness and online gambling-community participation of young social media users
Sirola, A., Kaakinen, M., Savolainen, I., & Oksanen, A. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.023 · Cited by 85
Loneliness, Social Isolation, and All-Cause Mortality in a Large Sample of Older Adults
Barnes, T. L., Ahuja, M., MacLeod, S., Tkatch, R., Albright, L., Schaeffer, J. A., & Yeh, C. S. (2022) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643221074857 · Cited by 84
“As for loneliness, interventions that address maladaptive thinking appear to be the most effective (Masi et al., 2011; NASEM 2020).”
BackgroundMorrish, N., Choudhury, S., & Medina‐Lara, A. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-17097-2 · Cited by 85
“This review will also complement existing studies which sought to assess and summarise the effect of interventions across age groups, sub-populations, and intervention strategies [12–16].”
Ehlers, D. K., Daugherty, A. M., Burzynska, A. Z., Fanning, J. T., Salerno, E. A., Chaddock‐Heyman, L., Kramer, A. F., & McAuley, E. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00110 · Cited by 78
“The combination of the social support environment and physical exercise may, therefore, serve to reduce psychological distress, which may, in turn, reduce perceptions of loneliness (Masi et al., 2011; McEwen and Gianaros, 2011; McHugh and Lawlor, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialPromoting mental wellbeing among older people: technology-based interventions
Forsman, A. K., Nordmyr, J., Matosevic, T., Park, A., Wahlbeck, K., & McDaid, D. (2017) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dax047 · Cited by 70
Loneliness in Chinese older adults in primary care: prevalence and correlates
Zhong, B., Liu, X., Chen, W., Chiu, H. F. K., & Conwell, Y. (2018) · Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1111/psyg.12325 · Cited by 74
Adams, R. N., Mosher, C. E., Winger, J. G., Abonour, R., & Kroenke, K. (2017) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-017-9892-5 · Cited by 70
“Cancer-related loneliness is a practical treatment target, as it can be modified in individual or group sessions (Masi et al., 2010) that do not require the involvement of patients’ family or friends who may be unwilling or unable to participate.”
BackgroundThe National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study: A Narrative Review and Future Directions
Fogle, B. M., Tsai, J., Mota, N. P., Harpaz‐Rotem, I., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.538218 · Cited by 85
“veterans in building social connections and becoming better integrated in their communities, such as interventions that promote volunteerism (150) and reduce loneliness (151, 152) may help enhance resilience among veterans and warrant further investigation (153).”
BackgroundRisk Factors Underlying COVID-19 Lockdown-Induced Mental Distress
Novotný, J., Gonzalez-Rivas, J. P., Kunzová, Š., Skladaná, M., Pospíšilová, A., Polcrova, A. B., Medina‐Inojosa, J. R., López-Jiménez, F. A., Geda, Y. E., & Stokin, G. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.603014 · Cited by 68
Introducing a dual continuum model of belonging and loneliness
Lim, M. H., Allen, K., Furlong, M. J., Craig, H., & Smith, D. C. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1883411 · Cited by 81
“A meta-analysis on interventions targeting loneliness reported the most appropriate intervention were those aimed at addressing individual’s maladaptive social cognitions (Masi et al. (2011).”
BackgroundLack of Belonging Predicts Depressive Symptomatology in College Students
Dutcher, J. M., Lederman, J., Jain, M., Price, S., Kumar, A., Villalba, D. K., Tumminia, M. J., Doryab, A., Creswell, K. G., Riskin, E. A., et al. (2022) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211073135 · Cited by 70
“However, greater work needs to be done to determine whether loneliness interventions are effective or that interventions can increase social contact among young adults (Masi et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMancini, A. D., Littleton, H., & Grills, A. E. (2015) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702615601001 · Cited by 86
Dispositional optimism and loneliness in older men
Ottenheim, N. R., Kromhout, D., van der Mast, R. C., Zitman, F. G., Geleijnse, J. M., & Giltay, E. J. (2011) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.2701 · Cited by 77
Socio-demographic characteristics associated with emotional and social loneliness among older adults
Fierloos, I. N., Tan, S. S., Williams, G., Alhambra‐Borrás, T., Koppelaar, E., Bilajac, L., Verma, A., Markaki, A., Mattace-Raso, F. U. S., Vasiljev, V., et al. (2021) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-021-02058-4 · Cited by 72
Liebmann, M., Pitman, A., Hsueh, Y.-C., Bertotti, M., & Pearce, E. (2022) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-022-08656-1 · Cited by 68
de Koning, J. L., Stathi, A., & Richards, S. H. (2016) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x16000696 · Cited by 78
The effectiveness of interventions addressing loneliness in older persons: An umbrella review
Jarvis, M. A., Padmanabhanunni, A., Balakrishna, Y., & Chipps, J. A. (2019) · International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.ijans.2019.100177 · Cited by 70
Santini, Z. I., Pisinger, V. S. C., Nielsen, L., Madsen, K. R., Nelausen, M. K., Koyanagi, A., Koushede, V., Roffey, S., Thygesen, L. C., & Meilstrup, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.632906 · Cited by 83
“Loneliness is an issue of concern in and of itself, and while meta-analytic reviews have evaluated specific interventions to reduce loneliness among adolescents (Masi et al., 2011; Eccles and Qualter, 2020), our results imply that fostering social connectedness at school could prevent loneliness, which in turn would p…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSocial support and depression during a global crisis
Choi, K. W., Lee, Y. A., Liu, Z., Fatori, D., Bauermeister, J. R., Luh, R. A., Clark, C. R., Brunoni, A. R., Bauermeister, S., & Smoller, J. W. (2023) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-023-00078-0 · Cited by 86
Reducing social isolation and promoting well being in older people
Hemingway, A., & Jack, E. (2013) · Quality in Ageing and Older Adults · doi:10.1108/14717791311311085 · Cited by 71
Social isolation and loneliness in old age: Exploring their role in mental and physical health
Tragantzopoulou, P., & Giannouli, V. (2021) · Psychiatriki · doi:10.22365/jpsych.2021.009 · Cited by 77
“62 One of these befriend-ing programmes –focused on older women – report-ed success in attracting lonely older people but not in improving the well-being of participants.”
Socioeconomic status impacts cognitive and socioemotional processes in healthy ageing
Migeot, J., Calivar, M., Granchetti, H. N., Ibáñez, A. M., & Fittipaldi, S. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-09580-4 · Cited by 66
ElliQ, an AI-Driven Social Robot to Alleviate Loneliness: Progress and Lessons Learned
Broadbent, E., Loveys, K., Ilan, G., Chen, G., Chilukuri, M. M., Boardman, S. G., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Skuler, D. (2024) · Journal of Aging Research and Lifestyle · doi:10.14283/jarlife.2024.2 · Cited by 73
“There are a variety of effective psychological treatments for loneliness, including Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, mindfulness, gratitude, social skills, reminiscence, social identity, and integrative approaches (12, 13).”
BackgroundEbesutani, C. K., Fierstein, M., Viana, A. G., Trent, L. R., Young, J. N., & Sprung, M. S. (2015) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.21818 · Cited by 71
Zhang, B., Gao, Q., Fokkema, M., Alterman, V., & Liu, Q. (2015) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2015.05.003 · Cited by 71
Absence and Presence of Human Interaction: The Relationship Between Loneliness and Empathy
Hu, T., Zheng, X., & Huang, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00768 · Cited by 73
“An integrative meta-analysis of loneliness intervention (Masi et al., 2011) revealed that correcting maladaptive social cognition was the most helpful way to reduce loneliness compared to improving social skills, enhancing social support by group interventions, and increasing opportunities for…”
Predictors of Loneliness by Age Decade
Nguyen, T. T., Lee, E., Daly, R. E., Wu, T., Tang, Y., Tu, X. M., Patten, R. V., Jeste, D. V., & Palmer, B. W. (2020) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.20m13378 · Cited by 72
Käll, A., Bäck, M., Welin, C., Åman, H., Bjerkander, R., Wänman, M., Lindegaard, T., Berg, M., Moche, H., Shafran, R., et al. (2021) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000516989 · Cited by 65
Loneliness and isolation in life-stories of Israeli veterans of combat and captivity.
Stein, J. Y., & Tuval-Mashiach, R. (2015) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/a0036936 · Cited by 57
I'm lonely, can't you tell? Convergent validity of self- and informant ratings of loneliness
Luhmann, M., Bohn, J., Holtmann, J., Koch, T., & Eid, M. (2016) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.02.002 · Cited by 61
Robinson-Whelen, S., Taylor, H. B., Feltz, M., & Whelen, M. (2016) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2016.04.008 · Cited by 59
Metadata
- Authors
- Masi, C. M., Chen, H.-Y., Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Masi, Christopher M.
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-08-17
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 219-266
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- PMC
- PMC3865701
- OpenAlex
- W2138867401
- Cited by
- 1,995
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 211 · 2024: 212 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 214 · 2021: 231 · 2020: 221 · 2019: 130 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 92 · 2016: 54 · 2015: 67 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 4.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- europepmc.org
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (Z99 RG999999, 5r01ag036433-02)
- National Institute on Aging (R01-AG036433, K08AG027200, R01AG034052)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- loneliness, social skills training, social support, social contact, intervention effectiveness, moderators, randomized controlled trials, non-randomized studies
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Health Promotion, Humans, Loneliness, Psychotherapy, Research Design, Social Adjustment, Social Perception, Social Support
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