The DOI matches its Crossref record; 151 of the 151 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns
Abstract
The fear appeal literature is examined in a comprehensive synthesis using meta-analytical techniques. The meta-analysis suggests that strong fear appeals produce high levels of perceived severity and susceptibility, and are more persuasive than low or weak fear appeals. The results also indicate that fear appeals motivate adaptive danger control actions such as message acceptance and maladaptive fear control actions such as defensive avoidance or reactance. It appears that strong fear appeals and high-efficacy messages produce the greatest behavior change, whereas strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses. Future directions and practical implications are provided.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Three meta-analyses have tested whether the inclusion of efficacy statements in fear appeals leads to increased effectiveness, and all found support for the weak hypothesis (de Hoog et al., 2007; Mongeau, 1998; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“The linear and curvilinear models have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and the linear model has consistently been supported by existing data, whereas the curvilinear model has not (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“Although some meta-analytic examinations have found positive effects of fear appeals on some outcomes (Witte & Allen, 2000), others have found null effects (de Hoog et al., 2007) or even negative effects (Peters et al., 2012).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“These results confirm the conclusions of prior meta-analyses concerning the use of efficacy statements (de Hoog et al., 2007; Peters et al., 2012; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“leads to defensive reactions when they feel helpless to act 8”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“appealing to fear leads people to change their behaviour if they feel capable of dealing with the threat”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses.”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“strong fear appeals produce the greatest behaviour change only when people feel a sense of efficacy”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Conversely, individuals with low GSE may view the same loss-framed messages as intimidating or demotivating, since they do not believe their actions will make a significant difference [45].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [45]
In the citing paper
“This is consistent with previous research and theory on fear appeals, which has found that such appeals increase fear as a mechanism for attitude, intention and behavioural change.87”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“Previous fear appeal research and theory also suggest that fear-oriented communications can elicit reactance.87”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“An early meta-analysis by Witte and Allen [34] revealed that fear appeals can actually increase the perception of the severity of the health threat inducing behaviour changes, at least as long as the individuals believe that they are able to protect themselves and avert the threat.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
Citations
Cites
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60214-2 · Cited by 8,822
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,590
A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change1
Rogers, R. W. (1975) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803 · Cited by 6,805
Chaiken, S. (1980) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.39.5.752 · Cited by 5,516
Handbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543
Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model
Witte, K. (1992) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637759209376276 · Cited by 3,880
Hunter, J., & Schmidt, F. (2004) · doi:10.4135/9781412985031 · Cited by 3,023
Rogers, R. W., & Rogers, R. W. (1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,577
Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change
Maddux, J. E., & Rogers, R. W. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9 · Cited by 2,342
(2017) · doi:10.5040/9798400682018.ch-003 · Cited by 2,248
Research works printed but not linked: 22
- Finckenauer JO, 1982, Scared Straight and the Panacea Phenomenon
- Covello V, 1986, Risk Abstracts, 3, 171
- Sutton SR, 1989, Social Behav, 4, 83
- Ben-Sira Z, 1981, Social Sci Med, 15, 105
- Kline K, annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association
- Hale JL, annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association
- Stephenson MT, Public Health Rev, 26, 147
- Rhodes P, 1990, AIDS Educ Prev, 2, 1
- Stout PA, annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association
- Kirscht JP, 1973, Int J Health Educ, 16, 268
- LaTour MS, 1989, J Health Care Marketing, 9, 5
- 10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.752 · DOI · Paper page
- Chaiken S, 1987, Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 5), 3
- Jepson C, 1990, J Social Behav Personality, 5, 61
- 81. Bang HK: The Effectiveness of the Use of Fear Appeals Depicting Legal and Physical Consequences in Anti-Drunk Driving Television Public Service Announcements . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1993.
- Beach RI, 1956, Res Rev, 53
- 90. Carey JC: The Influence of Involvement on Cognitive and Emotional Responses to Fear Appeals . Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1990.
- 91. Chang JL: Emotional Response and the Use of Threat Appeals . Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1989.
- Fruin DJ, 1992, J Abnormal Social Psych, 22, 55
- LaTour M, 1996, J Advertising Res, 28, 59
- Lemieux R, Speech Communication Association Convention
- 125. Rodriguez JI: Confounds in Fear Arousing Persuasive Messages: Do the Paths Less Traveled Make All the Difference? Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1995.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–1,000 of 1,006
“Fear the Flu, Not the Flu Shot”: A Test of the Extended Parallel Process Model
Roberto, A. J., Mongeau, P. A., Liu, Y., & Hashi, E. C. (2019) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2019.1673520 · Cited by 29
In Pursuit of Cumulative Knowledge in Health Communication: The Role of Meta-Analysis
Noar, S. M. (2006) · Health Communication · doi:10.1207/s15327027hc2002_8 · Cited by 29
Ogunseitan, O. A. (2003) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/s0959-3780(03)00004-9 · Cited by 29
Persuasive communication and spatial presence: a systematic literature review and conceptual model
Breves, P. L. (2023) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2023.2169952 · Cited by 28
“Based on theoretical models that explain the persuasive effects of negative emotions, such as fear, the intensification is constructive only to a limited extend if other elements (e.g. perception of high self-efficacy) do not apply (Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundRyan, M., Brindal, E., Roberts, M. G., & Hickson, R. I. (2024) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2024.0038 · Cited by 28
“However, although many of the behaviours these authors consider are of interest (for example, fear has been widely considered in behavioural theory and public health, although with inconsistent effects [23]), none of these models incorporate psychological justification for their behavioural uptakes.”
BackgroundThompson, P. B. (2012) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547012459177 · Cited by 28
Feenstra, H., Ruiter, R. A. C., & Kok, G. (2014) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2014.09.024 · Cited by 29
Moodie, C. S. (2015) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.3109/16066359.2015.1064905 · Cited by 28
Mays, D. M., & Tercyak, K. P. (2015) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2015.302665 · Cited by 28
The use of neurocognitive methods in assessing health communication messages: A systematic review
Kaye, S.-A., White, M. J., & Lewis, I. M. (2016) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105316630138 · Cited by 28
Mutti-Packer, S., Reid, J. L., Thrasher, J. F., Römer, D., Fong, G. T., Gupta, P. C., Pednekar, M. S., Nargis, N., & Hammond, D. G. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.04.002 · Cited by 28
Thrasher, J. F., Islam, F., Davis, R. E., Popova, L., Lambert, V., Cho, Y. J., Salloum, R. G., Louviere, J. J., & Hammond, D. G. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15020282 · Cited by 28
Horwood, C. M., Jama, N. A., Haskins, L., Coutsoudis, A., & Spies, L. (2018) · Maternal and Child Nutrition · doi:10.1111/mcn.12726 · Cited by 32
Pepper, J. K., Squiers, L., Peinado, S., Bann, C., Dolina, S. E., Lynch, M., Nonnemaker, J. M., & Mccormack, L. A. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.10.025 · Cited by 28
Page, M., Crampton, P. E. S., Viney, R., Rich, A., & Griffin, A. (2020) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-020-1993-0 · Cited by 28
Changing Behavior by Changing Environments
Marteau, T. M., Fletcher, P. C., Hollands, G. J., & Munafo, M. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.014 · Cited by 32
Message framing effects on food consumption: A social marketing perspective
Garg, N., Govind, R., & Nagpal, A. (2021) · Australian Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0312896221989398 · Cited by 28
Ebrahimi, O. V., Hoffart, A., & Johnson, S. U. (2021) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2021.1960987 · Cited by 32
“…so-called high-efficacy messages communicating both the efficacy of the advised protocol and suggesting strategies that promote self-efficacy by highlighting the individuals’ ability to adhere such protocols, a strategy previously related to beneficial behaviour change (e.g. Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialBalancing the Freedom–Security Trade-Off During Crises and Disasters
Cheek, N. N., Reutskaja, E., & Schwartz, B. N. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211034499 · Cited by 35
“…(e.g., health, cybersecurity, natural-disaster evacuation) has shown that fear appeals can backfire when people do not feel a sense of “self-efficacy”—that is, a feeling that they can act in a way to avoid or mitigate an incoming threat (Kok et al., 2018; Lawson et al., 2016; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundChen, L., & Chen, M. (2022) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13985 · Cited by 28
“Most studies using the EPPM focused on the main effects and interaction effects of perceived threat and perceived efficacy (Witte & Allen, 2000), offering limited insight into the functions of fear in this process.”
BackgroundBouffard, J. A. (2014) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x14539126 · Cited by 28
Volkman, J. E., & Parrott, R. L. (2012) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01433.x · Cited by 27
Problem Posing and Cultural Tailoring
Rikard, R. V., Thompson, M. S., Head, R., McNeil, C., & White, C. (2011) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839911416649 · Cited by 28
Cremers, A., Stubbé, H. E., van der Beek, D., Roelofs, M., & Kerstholt, J. H. (2014) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2014.919513 · Cited by 28
Navigating the gender minefield: An IPV prevention campaign sheds light on the gender gap
Keller, S. N., & Honea, J. C. (2015) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2015.1036765 · Cited by 28
Threat appeals and persuasion: Seeking and finding the elusive curvilinear effect
Meczkowski, E. J., Dillard, J. P., & Shen, L. (2016) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637751.2016.1158412 · Cited by 29
Putwain, D. W., & Symes, W. (2016) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-016-9337-y · Cited by 28
de Bruin, W. B., Lefevre, C. E., Taylor, A. L., Dessai, S., Fischhoff, B., & Kovats, S. R. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000083 · Cited by 30
Mental health service use among young adults: A communication framework for program development
Munson, M. R., & Jaccard, J. (2018) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-016-0765-y · Cited by 28
Bailey, R. L., Wang, T. G., & Kaiser, C. K. (2016) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2016.1250186 · Cited by 28
Kergoat, M., Delhomme, P., & Meyer, T. (2017) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2017.01.005 · Cited by 30
Fathi, Y., Barati, M., Zandiyeh, M., & Bashirian, S. (2017) · The International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.15171/ijoem.2017.1051 · Cited by 28
A Laughing Matter? How Humor in Alcohol Ads Influences Interpersonal Communication and Persuasion
Hendriks, H., & Strick, M. (2019) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2019.1663587 · Cited by 28
EPC RFID Tags in Security Applications: Passport Cards, Enhanced Drivers Licenses, and Beyond
Koscher, K., Juels, A., Kohno, T., & Brajkovic, V. (2008) · Cited by 28
Gyarmathy, V. A., Thomas, R., Mikl, J., McNutt, L. A., Morse, D. L., DeHovitz, J. A., Újhelyi, E., & Számadó, S. (2002) · International Journal of STD & AIDS · doi:10.1258/095646202760029822 · Cited by 28
Using Theory in Psychological Interventions
Kok, G., & Schaalma, H. P. (2004) · doi:10.1002/9780470694008.ch11 · Cited by 28
Persuasion and Social Influence
O’Keefe, D. J. (2016) · The International Encyclopedia of Communication Theory and Philosophy · doi:10.1002/9781118766804.wbiect067 · Cited by 28
Jin, E., & Eastin, M. S. (2024) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2024.2347951 · Cited by 29
Deshmukh, N., Petróczi, A., Barker, J., Székely, A. D., Hussain, I., & Naughton, D. P. (2010) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/1747-597x-5-7 · Cited by 27
Shi, Z., Wang, A., Emery, L. F., Sheerin, K. M., & Römer, D. (2016) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntw322 · Cited by 27
Mental health message appeals and audience engagement: Evidence from Australia
Yap, J. E., Zubcevic‐Basic, N., Johnson, L. W., & Lodewyckx, M. A. (2017) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dax062 · Cited by 27
Neural correlates of fear appeal in advertising: An fMRI analysis
Mostafa, M. M. (2018) · Journal of Marketing Communications · doi:10.1080/13527266.2018.1497680 · Cited by 29
Liao, Q., Lam, W., Wong, C. K. H., Lam, C., Chen, J., & Fielding, R. (2019) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.05.072 · Cited by 28
Cognitive and Affective Predictors of Illinois Residents’ Perceived Risks from Gray Wolves
Landon, A. C., Jacobs, M. H., Miller, C. A., Vaske, J. J., & Williams, B. D. (2019) · Society & Natural Resources · doi:10.1080/08941920.2019.1664680 · Cited by 27
Wen, H., & Lee, Y. M. (2019) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2019.102401 · Cited by 27
Ballouz, D., Cho, J., Woodward, M. A., Elam, A. R., Musch, D. C., Zhang, J. Y., Moroi, S. E., Johnson, L., Cederna, J., & Newman-Casey, P. A. (2020) · Journal of Glaucoma · doi:10.1097/ijg.0000000000001756 · Cited by 27
Ivanova, A. E., & Kvalem, I. L. (2021) · BMC Women s Health · doi:10.1186/s12905-021-01201-y · Cited by 27
Xin, T., Siponen, M. T., & Chen, S. (2021) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.1954242 · Cited by 28
“Furthermore, Witte and Allen (2000) conducted a meta-analysis and found that persuasive messages of high threat and low e ffi ciency produced the greatest reactance and avoidance in the healthcare fi eld.”
BackgroundLiu, M., Cui, T., Wang, Q., Han, Y., Han, Y., Yang, L., Shi, N., Yi, Y., & Jin, H. (2022) · Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/21645515.2022.2026136 · Cited by 27
Lindner, C., Kotta, I., Marschalkó, E. E., Szabó, K., Kálcza-Jánosi, K., & Retelsdorf, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19095098 · Cited by 30
“Following Witte and Allen [25], we assume that one major psychological function of governmental restrictions is increasing people’s perception of risk of getting infected, so that they engage in preventive behaviors [26,27] such as social distancing or hand washing (e.g., [28]).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPierce, J. J., Miller‐Stevens, K., Hicks, I., Zilly, D. C., Rangaraj, S., & Rao, E. (2022) · Review of Policy Research · doi:10.1111/ropr.12519 · Cited by 27
Fighting Infodemics: Labels as Antidotes to Mis- and Disinformation?!
Mende, M., Ubal, V. O., Cozac, M., Vallen, B., & Berry, C. (2023) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1177/07439156231184816 · Cited by 34
“Yet, other research on graphic health warnings does not fi nd such reactance effects and suggests that boo-merang effects are limited to particular audiences (Witte and Allen 2000).”
BackgroundNah, S., Williamson, L. D., Kahlor, L. A., Atkinson, L., Upshaw, S. J., & Ntang-Beb, J.-L. (2023) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2023.2244169 · Cited by 29
“Risk perception consists of perceived severity and susceptibility of risks (e.g., De Hoog et al., 2007; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
Anghelcev, G., & Sar, S. (2011) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/107769901108800302 · Cited by 27
Bosone, L., Martinez, F., & Kalampalikis, N. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215571089 · Cited by 27
Will, K. E., Sabo, C. S., & Porter, B. E. (2008) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2008.09.007 · Cited by 27
Applying a Common-Sense Approach to Fighting Obesity
Breland, J. Y., FOX, A. M., Horowitz, C. R., & Leventhal, H. (2012) · Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1155/2012/710427 · Cited by 27
Optimizing educational video through comparative trials in clinical environments
Aronson, I. D., Plass, J. L., & Bania, T. C. (2012) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-011-9231-4 · Cited by 28
Beatson, R. M., & McLennan, J. (2011) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/j.1742-9544.2011.00041.x · Cited by 28
The Manipulation of Fear in Carjacking
Jacobs, B. A. (2013) · Journal of Contemporary Ethnography · doi:10.1177/0891241612474934 · Cited by 27
Lewis, I. M., White, K. M., Ho, B. S., Elliott, B., & Watson, B. C. (2017) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2017.04.004 · Cited by 27
Pegors, T. K., Tompson, S., O’Donnell, M. B., & Falk, E. B. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.05.063 · Cited by 27
Imai, H., Furukawa, T. A., Hayashi, S.-U., Goto, A., Izumi, K., Hayashino, Y., Noda, M., & for the J-DOIT2 Study Group (2017) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105317718057 · Cited by 28
How to communicate cyber-risk? An examination of behavioral recommendations in cybersecurity crises
Zhang, X. A., & Borden, J. (2019) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2019.1646315 · Cited by 27
Phishing: message appraisal and the exploration of fear and self-confidence
House, D., & Raja, M. K. (2019) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2019.1657180 · Cited by 27
Wong, N. C. H. (2009) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410230802676474 · Cited by 27
Kim, P., Sorcar, P., Um, S., Chung, H., & Lee, Y. S. (2008) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyn031 · Cited by 27
State power and breastfeeding promotion: A critique
Balint, P. A., Eriksson, L., & Torresi, T. (2017) · Contemporary Political Theory · doi:10.1057/s41296-017-0158-3 · Cited by 26
Framing and Women's Support for Government Spending on Breast Cancer Research and Treatment Programs
Cassese, E. C., & Hannagan, R. J. (2014) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12048 · Cited by 26
Mevissen, F. E. F., Meertens, R. M., Ruiter, R. A. C., Feenstra, H., & Schaalma, H. P. (2009) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105308097948 · Cited by 26
Interactive Persuasive Systems: A Perspective on Theory and Evaluation
Spagnolli, A., Chittaro, L., & Gamberini, L. (2016) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2016.1142798 · Cited by 27
Examining the Effectiveness of Fear Appeals in Prompting Help-Seeking: The Case of At-Risk Gamblers
Vos, S. D., Crouch, R. C., Quester, P. G., & Ilicic, J. (2017) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21012 · Cited by 26
Romer, D., Ferguson, S. G., Strasser, A. A., Evans, A. T., Tompkins, M. K., Macisco, J. M., Fardal, M., Tusler, M., & Ellen, P. (2017) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-017-9916-y · Cited by 26
Communicating Seismic Risk: the Geoethical Challenges of a People-Centred, Participatory Approach
Stewart, I. S., Ickert, J., & Robin Lacassin, A. (2018) · Annals of Geophysics · doi:10.4401/ag-7593 · Cited by 26
Socioeconomic status, perceptions and obesity among adolescents in Jordan
Okour, A. M., Saadeh, R., Hijazi, M. H., Khalaileh, H. E. A., & Alfaqih, M. A. (2019) · Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2019.34.148.19641 · Cited by 26
Design, Implementation, and Evaluation of Behavior Change Interventions: A Ten-Task Guide
Abraham, C., & Denford, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.019 · Cited by 27
Changing Behavior Using the Reflective-Impulsive Model
Deutsch, R., & Strack, F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.012 · Cited by 30
Validity and Reliability of the Spanish Version of Fear of COVID-19 Scale in Colombian Physicians
Mercado-Lara, M. F., Campo‐Arias, A., & Monterrosa-Castro, Á. D. J. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00430-w · Cited by 26
Knowledge, attitudes, practices and fear of COVID‐19 among Iranians: A quick online survey
Ghaderi, E., Mahmoodi, H., Saqqezi, P. S., Gheshlagh, R. G., Moradi, G., Shokri, A., Piroozi, B., Bolbanabad, A. M., & Ahmadi, A. (2021) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13382 · Cited by 25
“Previous studies showed that fear combined by efficacy messages or persuasive messages can be motivator attitude, intention and behaviour changes and hope as long as individuals believe they are able to protect themselves (Nabi & Myrick, 2019; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundAli, L., & Ali, F. (2021) · Food Control · doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108471 · Cited by 26
Using Humor in Conjunction with Negative Consequences in Advertising
Voss, K. E. (2009) · Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising · doi:10.1080/10641734.2009.10505264 · Cited by 26
Reactions to threatening health messages
ten Hoor, G. A., Peters, G.-J., Kalagi, J., de Groot, L., Grootjans, K., Huschens, A., Köhninger, C., Kölgen, L., Pelssers, I., Schütt, T., et al. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-1011 · Cited by 26
Feng, B., Bell, R., Jerant, A., & Kravitz, R. (2011) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2010.550020 · Cited by 23
Putwain, D. W., Nicholson, L. J., Nakhla, G., Reece, M., Porter, B., & Liversidge, A. (2015) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2015.12.001 · Cited by 26
Healthy weight and lifestyle advertisements: an assessment of their persuasive potential
Dixon, H., Scully, M. L., Cotter, T., Maloney, S., & Wakefield, M. A. (2015) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyv031 · Cited by 26
Borgeson, K., & Valeri, R. M. (2004) · Journal of Applied Sociology · doi:10.1177/19367244042100205 · Cited by 26
Psychological distance and perceived consumer effectiveness in a cause-related marketing context
Wiebe, J., Basil, D. Z., & Runte, M. S. (2016) · International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing · doi:10.1007/s12208-016-0170-y · Cited by 26
Weapons of peace: Providing alternative means for social change reduces political violence
Schumpe, B. M., Bélanger, J. J., Giacomantonio, M., Nisa, C. F., & Brizi, A. (2018) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12546 · Cited by 26
Parent Ads in the National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign
Stephenson, M. T., & Quick, B. L. (2005) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730500326690 · Cited by 26
"Don't make my mistake": narrative fear appeals in health communication
Ooms, J. (2019) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · doi:10.33612/diss.97042126 · Cited by 26
Miao, Q., & Zhang, F. (2023) · Natural Hazards Review · doi:10.1061/nhrefo.nheng-1620 · Cited by 25
Halkjelsvik, T., & Rise, J. (2015) · Drugs Education Prevention and Policy · doi:10.3109/09687637.2015.1015491 · Cited by 25
Co‐Producing (a Fearful) A nthropocene
Cook, B. R., & Balayannis, A. (2015) · Geographical Research · doi:10.1111/1745-5871.12126 · Cited by 25
Sustainability attitudes and behavioral motivations of college students
Perrault, E. K., & Clark, S. K. (2017) · International Journal of Sustainability in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/ijshe-09-2016-0175 · Cited by 25
Understanding the Practice, Application, and Limitations of Meta-Analysis
Allen, M. R. (2019) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764219859619 · Cited by 29
Self-citationHase, V., Engelke, K. M., & Kieslich, K. (2020) · Journalism Studies · doi:10.1080/1461670x.2020.1753092 · Cited by 30
Nguyễn, Q. A., Hens, L., Nguyen, N., MacAlister, C., & Lebel, L. (2020) · Environmental Management · doi:10.1007/s00267-020-01334-0 · Cited by 25
Bojesen, A. B., & Rayce, S. B. (2020) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2020.105773 · Cited by 25
Evaluating an Intervention to Reduce Risky Driving Behaviors: Taking the Fear Out of Virtual Reality
Cutello, C. A., Gummerum, M., Hanoch, Y., & Hellier, E. (2020) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13643 · Cited by 25
“…assumption governing this approach is that arousing a sense of fear, by depicting an extremely aversive consequence, such as death, will persuade drivers to alter their risk attitudes, intentions, and behaviors and, thereafter, drive more safely (Lewis, Watson, & White, 2008b; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundBengtsson, A., Lindvall, K., Norberg, M., & Fhärm, E. (2021) · Scandinavian Journal of Primary Health Care · doi:10.1080/02813432.2021.1882083 · Cited by 25
“Fear has been described as motivating, as long as the individuals believe they have the ability to protect themselves, otherwise it may lead to anxiety and defensive avoidance [23].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Witte, K., & Allen, M.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- ORCID
- Allen, Mike
- Venue
- Health Education & Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2000-10
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 591-615
- ISSN
- 1090-1981 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-6127
- OpenAlex
- W1997092577
- Cited by
- 3,216
- References
- 144
- Citations by year
- 2026: 154 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 211 · 2022: 215 · 2021: 269 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 133 · 2018: 154 · 2017: 166 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 156 · 2014: 165 · 2013: 142 · 2012: 119
- FWCI
- 20.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Education & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media Influence and Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
- Keywords
- fear appeals, public health campaigns, perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, defensive avoidance, reactance, message acceptance, behavior change, persuasive communication
- MeSH terms
- Fear, Health Education, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Persuasive Communication, Public Health
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
