The DOI matches its Crossref record; 151 of the 151 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns
Abstract
The fear appeal literature is examined in a comprehensive synthesis using meta-analytical techniques. The meta-analysis suggests that strong fear appeals produce high levels of perceived severity and susceptibility, and are more persuasive than low or weak fear appeals. The results also indicate that fear appeals motivate adaptive danger control actions such as message acceptance and maladaptive fear control actions such as defensive avoidance or reactance. It appears that strong fear appeals and high-efficacy messages produce the greatest behavior change, whereas strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses. Future directions and practical implications are provided.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Three meta-analyses have tested whether the inclusion of efficacy statements in fear appeals leads to increased effectiveness, and all found support for the weak hypothesis (de Hoog et al., 2007; Mongeau, 1998; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“The linear and curvilinear models have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and the linear model has consistently been supported by existing data, whereas the curvilinear model has not (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“Although some meta-analytic examinations have found positive effects of fear appeals on some outcomes (Witte & Allen, 2000), others have found null effects (de Hoog et al., 2007) or even negative effects (Peters et al., 2012).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“These results confirm the conclusions of prior meta-analyses concerning the use of efficacy statements (de Hoog et al., 2007; Peters et al., 2012; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“leads to defensive reactions when they feel helpless to act 8”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“appealing to fear leads people to change their behaviour if they feel capable of dealing with the threat”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses.”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“strong fear appeals produce the greatest behaviour change only when people feel a sense of efficacy”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Conversely, individuals with low GSE may view the same loss-framed messages as intimidating or demotivating, since they do not believe their actions will make a significant difference [45].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [45]
In the citing paper
“This is consistent with previous research and theory on fear appeals, which has found that such appeals increase fear as a mechanism for attitude, intention and behavioural change.87”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“Previous fear appeal research and theory also suggest that fear-oriented communications can elicit reactance.87”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“An early meta-analysis by Witte and Allen [34] revealed that fear appeals can actually increase the perception of the severity of the health threat inducing behaviour changes, at least as long as the individuals believe that they are able to protect themselves and avert the threat.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
Citations
Cites
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60214-2 · Cited by 8,822
DeLamater, J., & Ward, A. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0 · Cited by 7,590
A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change1
Rogers, R. W. (1975) · The Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803 · Cited by 6,805
Chaiken, S. (1980) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.39.5.752 · Cited by 5,516
Handbook of Personality : Theory and Research
Pervin, L. A. (1992) · Cited by 4,543
Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model
Witte, K. (1992) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637759209376276 · Cited by 3,880
Hunter, J., & Schmidt, F. (2004) · doi:10.4135/9781412985031 · Cited by 3,023
Rogers, R. W., & Rogers, R. W. (1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,577
Protection motivation and self-efficacy: A revised theory of fear appeals and attitude change
Maddux, J. E., & Rogers, R. W. (1983) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9 · Cited by 2,342
(2017) · doi:10.5040/9798400682018.ch-003 · Cited by 2,248
Research works printed but not linked: 22
- Finckenauer JO, 1982, Scared Straight and the Panacea Phenomenon
- Covello V, 1986, Risk Abstracts, 3, 171
- Sutton SR, 1989, Social Behav, 4, 83
- Ben-Sira Z, 1981, Social Sci Med, 15, 105
- Kline K, annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association
- Hale JL, annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association
- Stephenson MT, Public Health Rev, 26, 147
- Rhodes P, 1990, AIDS Educ Prev, 2, 1
- Stout PA, annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association
- Kirscht JP, 1973, Int J Health Educ, 16, 268
- LaTour MS, 1989, J Health Care Marketing, 9, 5
- 10.1037/0022-3514.39.5.752 · DOI · Paper page
- Chaiken S, 1987, Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 5), 3
- Jepson C, 1990, J Social Behav Personality, 5, 61
- 81. Bang HK: The Effectiveness of the Use of Fear Appeals Depicting Legal and Physical Consequences in Anti-Drunk Driving Television Public Service Announcements . Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1993.
- Beach RI, 1956, Res Rev, 53
- 90. Carey JC: The Influence of Involvement on Cognitive and Emotional Responses to Fear Appeals . Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1990.
- 91. Chang JL: Emotional Response and the Use of Threat Appeals . Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Texas at Austin, 1989.
- Fruin DJ, 1992, J Abnormal Social Psych, 22, 55
- LaTour M, 1996, J Advertising Res, 28, 59
- Lemieux R, Speech Communication Association Convention
- 125. Rodriguez JI: Confounds in Fear Arousing Persuasive Messages: Do the Paths Less Traveled Make All the Difference? Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1995.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 1,006
The Chill of the Moment: Emotions and Proenvironmental Behavior
Schwartz, D., & Loewenstein, G. F. (2017) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1509/jppm.16.132 · Cited by 88
Media Use and Health Behavior in H1N1 Flu Crisis: The Mediating Role of Perceived Knowledge and Fear
Zhang, L., Kong, Y., & Chang, H. (2015) · Atlantic Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/15456870.2015.1013101 · Cited by 87
Reactance to Health Warnings Scale: Development and Validation
Hall, M. G., Sheeran, P., Noar, S. M., Ribisl, K. M., Bach, L., & Brewer, N. T. (2016) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9799-3 · Cited by 89
The Effects of Argument Explicitness on Responses to Advice in Supportive Interactions
Feng, B., & Burleson, B. R. (2008) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650208324274 · Cited by 87
Are You Scared Yet? Evaluating Fear Appeal Messages in Tweets About the Tips Campaign
Emery, S., Szczypka, G., Abril, E. P., Kim, Y., & Vera, L. E. (2014) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/jcom.12083 · Cited by 86
Responses of young adults to graphic warning labels for cigarette packages
Cameron, L. D., Pepper, J. K., & Brewer, N. T. (2013) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050645 · Cited by 86
Changing eating behaviour: W hat can we learn from behavioural science?
Atkins, L., & Michie, S. (2013) · Nutrition Bulletin · doi:10.1111/nbu.12004 · Cited by 92
Scaring the Already Scared: Some Problems With HIV/AIDS Fear Appeals in Namibia
Muthusamy, N., Levine, T. R., & Weber, R. (2009) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01418.x · Cited by 86
How Graphic Visual Health Warnings Affect Young Smokers’ Thoughts of Quitting
Andrews, J. C., Netemeyer, R. G., Kees, J., & Burton, S. (2013) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1509/jmr.13.0092 · Cited by 83
"If It's Important It Will Be A Headline"
Nicholson, J., Coventry, L., & Briggs, P. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300579 · Cited by 103
TV News and COVID-19: Media Influence on Healthy Behavior in Public Spaces
Scopelliti, M., Pacilli, M. G., & Aquino, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041879 · Cited by 90
“Perceived efficacy is composed of two dimensions as well: perceived selfefficacy, referring to one’s beliefs about the ability to perform the proper behavior, and perceived response efficacy, namely one’s beliefs about whether that behavior can be effective in avoiding the threat [67].”
BackgroundFear and hope in climate messages
Stern, P. C. (2012) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate1610 · Cited by 94
Nabi, R. L., & Prestin, A. (2016) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2015.1045237 · Cited by 83
A longitudinal analysis of the privacy paradox
Dienlin, T., Masur, P. K., & Trepte, S. (2021) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448211016316 · Cited by 94
Obrenovic, B., Du, J., Godinić, D., Baslom, M. M. M., & Tsoy, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.648572 · Cited by 94
“Job Insecurity The job insecurity (JIS) scale was adopted from De Witte (2000).”
BackgroundMethodScared straight? Fear-appeal anti-smoking campaigns, risk, self-efficacy and addiction
Thompson, L., Barnett, J., & Pearce, J. R. (2009) · Health Risk & Society · doi:10.1080/13698570902784281 · Cited by 82
On the Use of Structural Equation Modeling in Health Communication Research
Stephenson, M. T., Holbert, R. L., & Zimmerman, R. S. (2006) · Health Communication · doi:10.1207/s15327027hc2002_7 · Cited by 82
D’Antoni, D., Smith, L., Auyeung, V., & Weinman, J. A. (2017) · Environmental Health · doi:10.1186/s12940-017-0307-4 · Cited by 83
Lee, S. Y., & Hawkins, R. P. (2016) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2015.1018701 · Cited by 81
Young, B., Bedford, L. E., Kendrick, D., Vedhara, K., Robertson, J. F. R., & das Nair, R. (2017) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdx026 · Cited by 81
Nudging to Reduce the Perceived Threat of Coronavirus and Stockpiling Intention
Kim, J., Giroux, M., Gonzalez-Jimenez, H., Jang, S., Kim, S., Park, J., Kim, J.-E., Lee, J. C., & Choi, Y. (2020) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2020.1806154 · Cited by 70
“Fear is one of the most frequently used emotional appeals in prevention-related health messages (Witte and Allen 2000), aiming to frighten people into adopting healthier behavior by emphasizing the harmful effect on health when message recommendations are not implemented (Nabi 1999).”
Fong, G. T., Hammond, D. G., Jiang, Y., Li, Q., Quah, A. C. K., Driezen, P., Yan, M., & for the ITC China Project Team (2010) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.2010.036483 · Cited by 81
WHITE, V. M., Tan, N., Wakefield, M. A., & Hill, D. (2003) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.12.suppl_2.ii23 · Cited by 81
Voitsidis, P., Nikopoulou, V. A., Holeva, V., Parlapani, E., Sereslis, K., Tsipropoulou, V., Karamouzi, P., Giazkoulidou, A., Tsopaneli, N., & Diakogiannis, I. (2021) · Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12315 · Cited by 78
“While fear and threat are conceptually distinct (the former is emotion, and the latter is cognition), they are intricately and reciprocally related, in such the higher the perceived threat, the greater the experience of fear (Nabi & Myrick, 2019; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundDonato, S., Parise, M., Pagani, A. F., Lanz, M., Regalia, C., Rosnati, R. R., & Iafrate, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.578395 · Cited by 85
“It has been demonstrated, in fact, that appealing to fear as a measure of behavioral change can be effective during a global stressor, such as a pandemic, only when people possess (or are helped to acquire) a sense of efficacy to deal with the threat (Witte and Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundPak, H., Süsen, Y., Nazlıgül, M. D., & Griffiths, M. D. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-021-00489-z · Cited by 83
“Therefore, depending upon the insights from the uncertain nature of the pandemic and the distinctive cultural characteristic of Turkey, it was hypothesized that the uncertainty of the pandemic as a cognition would prompt individuals to experience more negative emotions, particularly fear (H1), because fear is the domi…”
BackgroundRetweeting Risk Communication: The Role of Threat and Efficacy
Vos, S. C., Sutton, J. N., Yu, Y., Renshaw, S. L., Olson, M. K., Gibson, C. B., & Butts, C. T. (2018) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13140 · Cited by 82
Manual for Designing, Implementing and Evaluating Road Safety Communication Campaigns
Delhomme, P., de Dobbeleer, W., Forward, S. E., Simões, A., Adamos, G., Areal, A., Chappé, J., Eyssartier, C., Loukopoulos, P., Nathanail, E., et al. (2009) · HAL · Cited by 80
Teachers’ use of fear appeals in the Mathematics classroom: Worrying or motivating students?
Putwain, D. W., & Symes, W. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/2044-8279.002005 · Cited by 108
The Role of Coping Appraisal in Reactions to Fear Appeals: Do We Need Threat Information?
Ruiter, R. A. C., Verplanken, B., Kok, G., & Werrij, M. Q. (2003) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053030084006 · Cited by 79
Examining Adolescents' Responses to Antimarijuana PSAs
Stephenson, M. T. (2003) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2003.tb00843.x · Cited by 79
Barnett, D. J., Levine, R. E., Thompson, C. B., Wijetunge, G., Oliver, A. L., Bentley, M. A., Neubert, P. D., Pirrallo, R. G., Links, J. M., & Balicer, R. D. (2010) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009856 · Cited by 78
Levin, A. M., Dato‐on, M. C., & Manolis, C. (2007) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.211 · Cited by 78
Riet, J. V. ‘., Cox, A. D., Cox, D. S., Zimet, G. D., de Bruijn, G., van den Putte, B., de Vries, H., Werrij, M. Q., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2014) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.896916 · Cited by 78
Using Social and Behavioural Science to Support COVID-19 Pandemic ResponsePreprint
Bavel, J. J. V., D, K. B. A., Boggio, P. S., Capraro, V., Cichocka, A. K., Cikara, M., Crockett, M. J., Crum, A. J., Douglas, K. M., Druckman, J. N., et al. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4178356 · Cited by 89
Wigg, S., & Stafford, L. D. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0153027 · Cited by 77
Meulenaer, S. D., Pelsmacker, P. D., & Dens, N. (2017) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2016.1266573 · Cited by 85
Poulter, D. R., & MCKENNA, F. P. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466509x468421 · Cited by 77
Vai, B., Cazzetta, S., Ghiglino, D., Parenti, L., Saibene, G., Toti, M., Verga, C., Wykowska, A., & Benedetti, F. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.563426 · Cited by 76
Heiss, R., Gell, S., Röthlingshöfer, E., & Zoller, C. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110672 · Cited by 86
“Thus, although other research has indicated that threat perceptions can incentivise political adherence in the short term (Witte & Allen, 2000), high levels of anxiety may also have unintended effects in the long run.”
What factors underlie attitudes regarding protective mask use during the COVID-19 pandemic?
Mallinas, S. R., Maner, J. K., & Plant, E. A. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111038 · Cited by 72
“Meta-analytic evidence indicates that fearbased health messages are highly effective and often more persuasive than other types of messages (Witte & Allen, 2000).”
Casey, M. K., Allen, M. R., Emmers‐Sommer, T. M., Parcell, E. S., DeGooyer, D. H., WINTERS, A. M., Wagner, A. E., & Dun, T. (2003) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730305682 · Cited by 76
Self-citationThe effects of positive emotion priming on self-reported reckless driving
Ben‐Ari, O. T. –. (2011) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2011.09.039 · Cited by 76
A qualitative study of lifestyle counselling in general practice in Ireland
Lambe, B., & Collins, C. (2009) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cmp086 · Cited by 76
Bleakley, A., Jordan, A. B., Hennessy, M. H., Glanz, K., Strasser, A. A., & Vaala, S. E. (2015) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2015.1018593 · Cited by 77
Collado, S., & Evans, G. W. (2018) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.12.001 · Cited by 75
Gallopel‐Morvan, K. (2006) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/076737010602100403 · Cited by 75
Distinct pathways to persuasion: The role of affect in message‐framing effects
Riet, J. V. ‘., Ruiter, R. A. C., Werrij, M. Q., Candel, M. J. J. M., & de Vries, H. (2009) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.722 · Cited by 75
Wakefield, M. A., Bayly, M., Durkin, S. J., Cotter, T., Mullin, S., Warne, C. D., & for the International Anti-Tobacco Advertisement Rating Study Team (2011) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050171 · Cited by 75
The Ethics of Advertising for Health Care Services
Schenker, Y., Arnold, R. M., & London, A. J. (2014) · The American Journal of Bioethics · doi:10.1080/15265161.2013.879943 · Cited by 75
Markowitz, E. M., & Guckian, M. L. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813130-5.00003-5 · Cited by 92
Liu, Z., & Yang, J. Z. (2020) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2020.1748834 · Cited by 74
Abdelmutti, N., & Hoffman‐Goetz, L. (2009) · Women & Health · doi:10.1080/03630240903238776 · Cited by 74
Wakefield, M. A., Durrant, R., Terry‐McElrath, Y. M., Ruel, E. E., Balch, G. I., Anderson, S., Szczypka, G., Emery, S., & Flay, B. R. (2003) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.12.suppl_2.ii82 · Cited by 74
Illegal Downloading, Ethical Concern, and Illegal Behavior
Robertson, K., McNeill, L. S., Green, J., & Roberts, C. (2011) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-011-1079-3 · Cited by 73
AIDS Policy and Psychology: A Mechanism-Design Approach
Caplin, A., & Eliaz, K. (2003) · The RAND Journal of Economics · doi:10.2307/1593781 · Cited by 74
Evolutionary perspectives on cesarean section
Rosenberg, K. E., & Trevathan, W. R. (2018) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eoy006 · Cited by 79
When Consumption Regulations Backfire: The Role of Political Ideology
Irmak, C., Murdock, M. R., & Kanuri, V. K. (2020) · Journal of Marketing Research · doi:10.1177/0022243720919709 · Cited by 76
COVID-19: Retransmission of official communications in an emerging pandemic
Sutton, J. N., Renshaw, S. L., & Butts, C. T. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0238491 · Cited by 73
“Self efficacy Efficacy information [9,22] instructs individuals about how they can protect themselves against a threat.”
BackgroundHealth communication in and out of public health emergencies: to persuade or to inform?
Oxman, A. D., Fretheim, A., Lewin, S. A., Flottorp, S. A., Glenton, C., Helleve, A., Vestrheim, D. F., Iversen, B. G., & Rosenbaum, S. (2022) · Health Research Policy and Systems · doi:10.1186/s12961-022-00828-z · Cited by 73
“Strategies that can be used to influence people to behave in a desired way, either intentionally or unintentionally, include using words and hyperbolic or alarming language without presenting numbers [7, 22], presenting risk ratios for benefits and absolute effects for harms [7, 23], leaving out the denominator [24],…”
BackgroundAffective and behavioral responses to health-related social control.
Tucker, J. S., Orlando, M., Elliott, M. N., & Klein, D. J. (2006) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.6.715 · Cited by 74
Peters, G.-J., Ruiter, R. A. C., & Kok, G. (2013) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12000 · Cited by 83
Angels versus Devils: The Portrayal of Characters in the Gun Policy Debate
Merry, M. K. (2017) · Policy Studies Journal · doi:10.1111/psj.12207 · Cited by 72
Lennon, R., Rentfro, R. W., & O’Leary, B. (2010) · Academy of Marketing Studies journal · Cited by 72
Schneider, S., Gadinger, M., & Fischer, A. (2012) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2011.03.005 · Cited by 71
Gray, S. W., Martins, Y., Feuerman, L. Z., Bernhardt, B. A., Biesecker, B. B., Christensen, K. D., Joffe, S., Rini, C. K., Veenstra, D. L., & McGuire, A. L. (2014) · Genetics in Medicine · doi:10.1038/gim.2014.26 · Cited by 71
Sanderson, S. C., O’Neill, S. C., Bastian, L. A., Bepler, G., & McBride, C. M. (2009) · Public Health Genomics · doi:10.1159/000226595 · Cited by 71
Goodall, C. E., Sabo, J. D., Cline, R. J. W., & Egbert, N. (2011) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2011.626499 · Cited by 71
Netemeyer, R. G., Burton, S., Andrews, J. C., & Kees, J. (2015) · Journal of Public Policy & Marketing · doi:10.1509/jppm.15.008 · Cited by 70
Dillard, J. P., Li, R., Meczkowski, E. J., Yang, C. Y., & Shen, L. (2016) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650216631097 · Cited by 72
Biener, L., & Taylor, T. (2002) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tc.11.1.75 · Cited by 71
Perceptions Related to Falls and Fall Prevention Among Hospitalized Adults
Twibell, R. S., Siela, D., Sproat, T., & Coers, G. (2015) · American Journal of Critical Care · doi:10.4037/ajcc2015375 · Cited by 70
He, J., Chen, X., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., & Bai, J. (2021) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-020-09610-4 · Cited by 70
Severity, Efficacy, and Evidence Type as Determinants of Health Message Exposure
Hastall, M. R., & Knobloch‐Westerwick, S. (2012) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.690175 · Cited by 77
Identifying climate change interpretive communities in a large Australian sample
Hine, D. W., Reser, J., Phillips, W. J., Cooksey, R., Marks, A. D. G., Nunn, P. D., Watt, S., Bradley, G. L., & Glendon, A. I. (2013) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2013.08.006 · Cited by 78
Personalized risk messaging can reduce climate concerns
Mildenberger, M., Lubell, M. N., & Hummel, M. A. (2019) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.01.002 · Cited by 70
Hollands, G. J., Shemilt, I., Marteau, T. M., Jebb, S. A., Kelly, M. P., Nakamura, R., Suhrcke, M., & Ogilvie, D. (2013) · Cited by 68
Advertising Appeals, Moderators, And Impact on Persuasion
Hornik, J., Ofir, C., & Rachamim, M. (2017) · Journal of Advertising Research · doi:10.2501/jar-2017-017 · Cited by 83
Yang, X., Chen, L., Wei, L., & Su, Q. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17072314 · Cited by 69
Self- and Response Efficacy Information in Fear Appeals: A Meta-Analysis
Bigsby, E., & Albarracín, D. (2022) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqab048 · Cited by 72
“Increased behavioral confidence presumably helps the audience accept the message recommendation as an appropriate way of coping with the threat (de Hoog et al., 2007; Leventhal, 1970; Rogers, 1975; Witte, 1992; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialConspiracy beliefs and vaccination intent for COVID-19 in an infodemic
Ghaddar, A., Khandaqji, S., Awad, Z., & Kansoun, R. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261559 · Cited by 69
“Besides its effect on COVID-19 vaccination intent, the spread of fake news prevents effective care and might threaten lives [25, 26].”
Lim, J. R., Liu, B. F., & Egnoto, M. J. (2019) · Weather Climate and Society · doi:10.1175/wcas-d-18-0080.1 · Cited by 69
Gardner, B., Rebar, A. L., & Lally, P. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.041 · Cited by 73
The fate of marginal bone around axial vs. tilted implants: a systematic review.
FABBRO, M. D., & Ceresoli, V. (2014) · PubMed · Cited by 68
Casey, M. K., Timmerman, L. M., Allen, M. R., Krahn, S., & Turkiewicz, K. L. (2009) · Southern Communication Journal · doi:10.1080/10417940802335953 · Cited by 68
Self-citationRahinel, R., & Nelson, N. M. (2016) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucw039 · Cited by 68
Viruses Going Viral: Impact of Fear-Arousing Sensationalist Social Media Messages on User Engagement
Ali, K. I., Zain-ul-abdin, K., Li, C., Johns, L. N., Ali, A., & Carcioppolo, N. (2019) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547019846124 · Cited by 77
Developing a social psychology of climate change
Fielding, K. S., Hornsey, M. J., & Swim, J. K. (2014) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2058 · Cited by 67
Shahzad, F., Du, J., Khan, I., Fateh, A., Shahbaz, M., Abbas, A. J., & Wattoo, M. U. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17145102 · Cited by 74
Choi, H. J., Krieger, J. L. R., & Hecht, M. L. (2013) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.720245 · Cited by 73
Gobster, P. H. (2005) · Ecological Restoration · doi:10.3368/er.23.4.261 · Cited by 67
Goodall, C. E., & Reed, P. R. (2013) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.689096 · Cited by 67
McGlone, M. S., Bell, R. A., Zaitchik, S., & McGlynn, J. (2012) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2012.727950 · Cited by 67
Will, K. E., & Geller, E. S. (2004) · Journal of Safety Research · doi:10.1016/j.jsr.2003.11.007 · Cited by 67
Vardeman, J. E., & Aldoory, L. (2008) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410230802056396 · Cited by 67
McKay, D. L., Berkowitz, J. M., Blumberg, J. B., & Goldberg, J. P. (2004) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198104263353 · Cited by 67
Xiao, B. S., & Benbasat, I. (2015) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2015.0592 · Cited by 67
Testing a novel multicomponent intervention to reduce meat consumption in young men
Amiot, C. E., Boutros, G. E. H., Sukhanova, K., & Karelis, A. D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204590 · Cited by 76
Communicating climate change through documentary film: imagery, emotion, and efficacy
Bieniek-Tobasco, A., McCormick, S., Rimal, R. N., Harrington, C. B., Shafer, M., & Shaikh, H. (2019) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02408-7 · Cited by 74
Rossen, I., Hurlstone, M. J., & Lawrence, C. M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01483 · Cited by 71
Metadata
- Authors
- Witte, K., & Allen, M.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- ORCID
- Allen, Mike
- Venue
- Health Education & Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2000-10
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 591-615
- ISSN
- 1090-1981 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-6127
- OpenAlex
- W1997092577
- Cited by
- 3,216
- References
- 144
- Citations by year
- 2026: 154 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 211 · 2022: 215 · 2021: 269 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 133 · 2018: 154 · 2017: 166 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 156 · 2014: 165 · 2013: 142 · 2012: 119
- FWCI
- 20.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Education & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media Influence and Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
- Keywords
- fear appeals, public health campaigns, perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, defensive avoidance, reactance, message acceptance, behavior change, persuasive communication
- MeSH terms
- Fear, Health Education, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Persuasive Communication, Public Health
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
