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Cited by 1Climate Change Communication and PerceptionEnvironmental Education and SustainabilityClimate Change Policy and Economics

The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading

Open access
Li, Tong, Yang, Yutao, Liu, Xiaofei, Zeng, Siyu·2025·BMC Psychology
DOI 10.1186/s40359-025-03713-wPMC PMC12751754
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Abstract

As global carbon emissions continue to rise and climate targets grow increasingly urgent, promoting voluntary low-carbon behaviors has become a critical component of climate policy. Among various behavior-oriented instruments, Personal Carbon Trading (PCT) offers a promising yet underutilized strategy for incentivizing individual emissions reduction, though public participation remains limited due to psychological and communicative barriers. This study investigates how message framing (gain vs. loss) influences individuals’ willingness to participate in PCT, and whether this effect is mediated by climate change anxiety (CCA) and moderated by two psychological traits: felt responsibility (FR) and green self-efficacy (GSE). Drawing upon Prospect Theory, Norm Activation Theory, and Self-Efficacy Theory, we conducted an online experiment with randomized stimuli and analyzed the responses of 788 participants. The results show that loss-framed messages significantly enhance voluntary engagement intention (VEI) towards PCT compared to gain-framed messages. Moreover, CCA partially mediates the relationship between message framing and VEI, confirming the emotional pathway through which message framing operates. Importantly, both FR and GSE moderate these effects, such that loss framing is more effective among individuals with higher levels of responsibility or efficacy. These findings advance theoretical understanding of the framing-emotion-intention pathway while offering evidence-based strategies for designing personalized environmental communications that promote voluntary participation in PCT.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In an online randomized experiment with 788 Chinese participants, loss-framed messages about personal carbon trading produced higher voluntary engagement intention than gain-framed messages, with climate change anxiety partially mediating the effect. Felt responsibility and green self-efficacy moderated framing effects, but the hypothesized moderation of the CCA→VEI path by GSE was not supported.

Key findings

  • Loss-framed messages increased voluntary engagement intention (VEI) versus gain-framed messages: loss group M = 4.58, SE = 0.078 vs. gain group M = 3.99, SE = 0.038; ANCOVA F(1,782) = 9.723, p < 0.001; t-test t = −6.834, p < 0.001.
  • Climate change anxiety (CCA) partially mediated the framing→VEI relationship: indirect effect = −0.249, BootSE = 0.054, 95% CI [−0.352, −0.141]; after including CCA, framing still had a direct effect on VEI (β = −0.344, SE = 0.066, p < 0.001); model R² = 0.473.
  • Felt responsibility (FR) moderated framing→CCA (interaction β = 0.152, SE = 0.055, p < 0.01) and framing→VEI (β = −0.246, SE = 0.053, p < 0.001); green self-efficacy (GSE) moderated framing→VEI (β = −0.543, SE = 0.052, p < 0.001). Loss framing was more effective for high FR/GSE individuals, while gain framing showed relative advantages for low FR/GSE groups.
  • H5b was not supported: CCA × GSE on VEI was non-significant in PROCESS (β = −0.033, SE = 0.017, p = 0.055, 95% CI [−0.0670, 0.0007]) and PLS-SEM (β = −0.045, p > 0.05); PLS-SEM otherwise converged with PROCESS results.

Methods

  • Online randomized experiment in mainland China from April 1 to April 15, 2025; 900 Chinese citizens recruited via Wenjuanxing, with 788 valid responses (87.56% effective rate); participants were randomly assigned to gain-framed (n = 394) or loss-framed (n = 394) groups after reading neutral PCT introductory material.
  • Stimuli differed only in framing orientation, with fixed 30-second exposure; measures used 7-point Likert scales for CCA, VEI, FR, and GSE, adapted from validated scales via translation-back-translation and pilot testing (N = 38).
  • Analysis included ANCOVA with demographic covariates, CFA for reliability/validity, Hayes PROCESS Model 4 and Model 29 for mediation and moderated mediation, and PLS-SEM as a robustness check given non-normal residuals.

Limitations

  • Stated by the paper: the sample is exclusively from mainland China, skews middle-aged (71.83% aged 26–45) and college-educated (66.75%), and relied on online recruitment that may exclude rural, elderly, and low-income groups; the study measured intentions rather than actual behavior; only CCA was tested as a mediator and FR/GSE as moderators; anxiety threshold/inverted-U effects were not tested; static text stimuli and implementation feasibility of personalized messaging remain unvalidated.
  • Evident from Table 1: despite quota sampling, the randomized groups appear imbalanced on gender (gain: 230 male/164 female; loss: 177 male/217 female) and education (e.g., high school or below: 150 gain vs. 78 loss; college/bachelor’s: 225 gain vs. 301 loss), which the paper does not discuss as a potential confound.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1186/s40359-025-03713-w

Cites

70 of 70 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

6 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

7 of 48 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    PCT requires understanding complex policy instruments, thereby imposing higher cognitive demands than conventional green behaviors.

    “Second, it requires understanding complex policy instruments, thereby imposing higher cognitive demands than conventional green behaviors [10, 11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [10] Capstick, SB, Lewis, A. Effects ofpersonal carbon allowances on decisionmaking: evidence from an experimental simulation. Clim.Policy. 2010;10:369–84. source
    • cites [11] Wadud Z, Chintakayala PK. Personal carbon trading: trade-off and complementarity between in-home and transport related emissions reduction. Ecol Econ. 2019;156:397–408. source

      The Review of literature (p. 3) explains how households receive and trade carbon permits, and Methods §3.1 describes how the survey presented the scheme to respondents. Neither passage says PCT requires greater cognitive effort than conventional green behaviors. A search for understanding, complexity, and cognitive demands found no passage addressing that comparison. (LLM, conf=0.75)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Gain-framed messages tend to be more persuasive for individuals with low levels of self-efficacy.

    “Research has shown that gain-framed messages tend to be more persuasive for individuals with low levels of self-efficacy [46].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [46] Carfora V, Morandi M, Catellani P. The effect of message framing in promoting the mediterranean diet: the moderating role of eating self-efficacy. Foods. 2022;11(10):1454. source

      The Results (§4.3) and Discussion (§5) find that gain-framed messages were more effective than non-loss messages for people with low eating self-efficacy in promoting Mediterranean-diet adherence. The citing sentence omits those bounds, making the finding sound applicable to low self-efficacy and gain-framed messages generally. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Excessive anxiety may trigger avoidance, helplessness, or psychological disengagement.

    “While moderate anxiety can motivate pro-environmental intentions and behaviors [24], excessive anxiety may trigger avoidance, helplessness, or psychological disengagement [26, 27].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] Hogg TL, Stanley SK, O’Brien LV, Wilson MS, Watsford CR. The Hogg Eco-Anxiety scale: development and validation of a multidimensional scale. Glob Environ Change. 2021;71:102391. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

    • cites [27] Whitmarsh L, Player L, Jiongco A, James M, Williams M, Marks E, et al. Climate anxiety: what predicts it and how is it related to climate action? J Environ Psychol. 2022;83:101866. source

      Section 2.1 describes severe climate anxiety as potentially debilitating and reports that avoidance-based coping is associated with less pro-environmental engagement. Section 5.3 suggests a possible threshold beyond which anxiety may no longer motivate action, but the paper does not establish that excessive anxiety triggers avoidance, helplessness, or psychological disengagement. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationcitation

    Environmental threat information may drive behavioral responses through emotional pathways such as anxiety.

    “This result resonates with Eco-Anxiety theory, suggesting that environmental threat information may drive behavioral responses through emotional pathways such as anxiety [61, 62].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [61] Hayes K, Blashki G, Wiseman J, Burke S, Reifels L. Climate change and mental health: risks, impacts and priority actions. Int J Ment Health Syst. 2018;12:1–12. source

      The Discussion (Part 2; page unavailable) says awareness of climate threats can produce ecoanxiety and describes ecoparalysis as feelings of being unable to act effectively. Part 3 links managing feelings about those threats with behavioural engagement. The paper does not specifically say that anxiety drives behavioural responses, so the proposed pathway is only partly supported. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [62] Lawrance EL, Thompson R, Le Newberry J, Page L, Jennings N. The impact of climate change on mental health and emotional wellbeing: a narrative review of current evidence, and its implications. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2022;34(5):443–98. source
  • Findingown data

    Felt responsibility (FR) moderates the effects of message framing, such that loss framing is more effective among individuals with higher FR.

    “Importantly, both FR and GSE moderate these effects, such that loss framing is more effective among individuals with higher levels of responsibility or efficacy.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 46
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 35

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PCT involves a dual-layered feedback structure: immediate economic feedback through market transactions versus delayed collective environmental outcomes, creating psychological tension between tangible financial signals and abstract climate goals.

    “Third, PCT involves a dual-layered feedback structure: immediate economic feedback through market transactions versus delayed collective environmental outcomes. This creates psychological tension between tangible financial signals and abstract climate goals—a complexity absent in purely altruistic behaviors like recycling or donating [12].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Brekke KA, Kverndokk S, Nyborg K. An economic model of moral motivation. J Public Econ. 2003;87(9–10):1967–83. source

      Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Confidence enables high-efficacy individuals to interpret climate threats not as paralyzing, but as challenges that they can help resolve-thus transforming concern into proactive engagement.

    “Their confidence enables them to interpret climate threats not as paralyzing, but as challenges that they can help resolve—thus transforming concern into proactive engagement [44].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] Van Zomeren M, Spears R, Leach CW. Experimental evidence for a dual pathway model analysis of coping with the climate crisis. J Environ Psychol. 2010;30(4):339–46. source

      The Abstract and §7.1 report that group efficacy beliefs increase environmental action intentions, supporting the link between confidence in collective action and engagement. But §7.1 says group efficacy is not required for fear to motivate action; the paper does not establish that high-efficacy individuals reinterpret climate threats as challenges or that confidence transforms concern into action. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Other broader potential mechanisms such as environmental identity or moral obligation have not been encompassed.

    “Although the mediating role of CCA has been revealed, other broader potential mechanisms (such as environmental identity or moral obligation) have not been encompassed [74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Whitmarsh L, O’Neill S. Green identity, green living? The role of pro-environmental self-identity in determining consistency across diverse pro-environmental behaviours. J Environ Psychol. 2010;30(3):305–14. source

      The paper’s Results (p. 19) identify pro-environmental self-identity as a predictor of several behaviours, supporting environmental identity as a potential broader mechanism. It does not establish moral obligation as a mechanism. The statement that these mechanisms were not encompassed concerns the citing study, not a finding of this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both message framing (β = −0.9864, SE = 0.2320, t = −4.253, p < 0.001) and felt responsibility (FR) (β = 0.621, SE = 0.042, t = 14.877, p < 0.001) significantly predicted CCA.

    “The analysis revealed that both message framing (β = −0.9864, SE = 0.2320, t = −4.253, p < 0.001) and FR (β = 0.621, SE = 0.042, t = 14.877, p < 0.001) significantly predicted CCA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The interaction effects between message framing and FR (β = −0.246, SE = 0.053, t = −4.624, p < 0.001) and between message framing and GSE (β = −0.543, SE = 0.052, t = −10.543, p < 0.001) significantly influenced VEI.

    “The moderation analysis indicated that the interaction effects between message framing and FR (β = −0.246, SE = 0.053, t = −4.624, p < 0.001), as well as between message framing and GSE (β = −0.543, SE = 0.052, t = −10.543, p < 0.001), significantly influenced VEI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The direct effect of message framing was jointly moderated by FR and GSE: under low FR and low GSE, message framing had a significant positive effect (Effect = 1.0435, p < 0.001); under high FR and high GSE, the effect became a significant negative relationship (Effect = −1.416, p < 0.001).

    “Conditional effects analysis further revealed that the direct effect of message framing was jointly moderated by FR and GSE. Specifically, under conditions of low FR (M-1SD) and low GSE (M-1SD), message framing exhibited a significant positive effect (Effect = 1.0435, p < 0.001); whereas under conditions of high FR (M + 1SD) and high GSE (M + 1SD), this effect transformed into a significant”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Figure 2a shows both lines slope downward, indicating CCA decreases from loss to gain-framed messages regardless of FR level; the low FR line shows a steeper decline than the high FR line; the high FR line sits above the low FR line.

    “Figure 2a illustrates how FR moderates framing effects on CCA. Two key patterns emerge. First, both lines slope downward, indicating CCA decreases when moving from loss to gain-framed messages regardless of FR level. However, the low FR line (dashed) shows a steeper decline than the high FR line (solid), demonstrating stronger framing sensitivity among low-FR individuals. Second, the high FR line”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The mediation model was significant [F(2,785) = 352.8907, p < 0.001] and explained 47.34% of the variance in VEI (R2 = 0.473).

    “The overall model demonstrated statistical significance [F(2, 785) = 352.8907, p < 0.001] and explained 47.34% of the variance in the dependent variable (R² = 0.473).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The negative effect of message framing on CCA was strongest at low FR (M-1SD; Effect = −0.652, p < 0.001) and weakest at high FR (M+1SD; Effect = −0.196, p < 0.05).

    “Simple slope analysis demonstrated that the negative effect of message framing on CCA was strongest at low levels of FR (M-1SD; Effect = −0.652, p < 0.001) and weakest at high levels of FR (M + 1SD; Effect = −0.196, p < 0.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    When VEI is the dependent variable, message framing (β = 2.853, SE = 0.201, t = 14.191, p < 0.001), CCA (β = 0.571, SE = 0.077, t = 7.464, p < 0.001), FR (β = 0.212, SE = 0.039, t = 5.384, p < 0.001), and green self-efficacy (GSE) (β = 0.559, SE = 0.075, t = 7.449, p < 0.001) all had significant effects on VEI.

    “message framing (β = 2.853, SE = 0.201, t = 14.191, p < 0.001), CCA (β = 0.571, SE = 0.077, t = 7.464, p < 0.001), FR (β = 0.212, SE = 0.039, t = 5.384, p < 0.001), and GSE (β = 0.559, SE = 0.075, t = 7.449, p < 0.001) all demonstrated significant effects on VEI.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Figure 2c shows a similar crossover pattern: high-GSE individuals exhibit substantially higher VEI under loss-framed messages than gain-framed messages; low-GSE individuals show minimal framing sensitivity, with slightly higher VEI under gain-framed messages.

    “Figure 2c shows GSE’s moderating role on framing-VEI relationships, displaying a similar crossover pattern. High-GSE individuals (solid line) exhibit substantially higher VEI under loss-framed messages than gain-framed messages—the line slopes steeply downward. Low-GSE individuals (dashed line) show minimal framing sensitivity, with slightly higher VEI under gain-framed messages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Figure 2b reveals a crossover interaction: for high-FR individuals, VEI decreases sharply from loss to gain-framed messages; for low-FR individuals, VEI increases modestly from loss to gain-framed messages.

    “Figure 2b depicts how FR moderates framing effects on VEI, revealing a crossover interaction. For high-FR individuals (solid line), VEI decreases sharply from loss to gain-framed messages—loss-framed messages are substantially more motivating. For low-FR individuals (dashed line), the pattern reverses slightly: VEI increases modestly from loss to gain-framed messages, suggesting gain-framed”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Personal Carbon Trading (PCT) is often viewed as a relatively radical policy approach and faces considerable challenges in garnering public support and participation.

    “However, despite its conceptual appeal, PCT is often viewed as a relatively radical policy approach and faces considerable challenges in garnering public support and participation [7].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Fan J, Wang S, Wu Y, Li J, Zhao D. Buffer effect and price effect of a personal carbon trading scheme. Energy. 2015;82:601–10. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Public acceptance of PCT schemes is primarily shaped by factors such as policy design, perceived fairness, and environmental effectiveness.

    “Existing studies have shown that public acceptance of PCT schemes is primarily shaped by factors such as policy design, perceived fairness, and environmental effectiveness [8].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Bristow AL, Wardman M, Zanni AM, Chintakayala PK. Public acceptability of personal carbon trading and carbon tax. Ecol Econ. 2010;69(9):1824–37. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PCT operates as a market-based mechanism involving economic transactions rather than purely altruistic actions, potentially creating conflicts between environmental values and economic rationality.

    “First, PCT operates as a market-based mechanism involving economic transactions rather than purely altruistic actions, potentially creating conflicts between environmental values and economic rationality [9].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [9] Frey BS, Oberholzer-Gee F. The cost of price incentives: an empirical analysis of motivation crowding-out. Am Econ Rev. 1997;87(4):746–55.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Households are estimated to account for approximately 72% of global carbon emissions, with residential energy consumption representing the largest end-use sector.

    “Households are estimated to account for approximately 72% of global carbon emissions, with residential energy consumption representing the largest end-use sector [4, 5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [4] Kenny T, Gray N. Comparative performance of six carbon footprint models for use in Ireland. Environ Impact Assess Rev. 2009;29(1):1–6. source
    • cites [5] Du M, Zhang X, Xia L, Cao L, Zhang Z, Zhang L, et al. The China carbon watch (CCW) system: a rapid accounting of household carbon emissions in China at the provincial level. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2022;155:111825. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    GSE1 was retained because the overall GSE construct demonstrated adequate validity (CR = 0.890, AVE = 0.528, α = 0.821), and loadings above 0.60 are considered acceptable when construct-level metrics are strong.

    “While GSE1’s loading falls below the conventional 0.70 threshold, we retained it because the overall GSE construct demonstrated adequate validity (CR = 0.890, AVE = 0.528, α = 0.821), and loadings above 0.60 are considered acceptable when construct-level metrics are strong [54].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Hair JF, Risher JJ, Sarstedt M, Ringle CM. When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. Eur Bus Rev. 2019;31(1):2–24. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Loss-framed promotional messages effectively enhance individuals' participation intention in personal carbon trading, supporting H1.

    “The empirical findings support that message framing has a significant impact on individuals’ willingness to participate in carbon trading, with loss-framed promotional messages effectively enhancing individuals’ participation intention in PCT, thereby supporting H1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Anxiety is considered an adaptive response to perceived threat, functioning to enhance attentional focus and motivate protective actions.

    “Anxiety, in this context, is considered an adaptive response to perceived threat, functioning to enhance attentional focus and motivate protective actions [24].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Clayton S, Karazsia BT. Development and validation of a measure of climate change anxiety. J Environ Psychol. 2020;69:101434. source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The framing stimuli were designed with information equivalence: both framing groups contained identical information content and specific data, differing only in presentation style.

    “(1) Information equivalence: Both framing groups contained identical information content and specific data, differing only in presentation style;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The impact of CCA on VEI does not significantly vary across different individual GSE levels, so H5b was not supported.

    “This indicates that the impact of CCA on VEI does not significantly vary across different individual GSE levels, thus H5b was not supported.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The questionnaire had high reliability: overall Cronbach's α = 0.953, with construct alphas 0.938 (CCA), 0.913 (VEI), 0.818 (FR), and 0.821 (GSE).

    “Initially, reliability analysis revealed an overall Cronbach’s α of 0.953 for the questionnaire, with all constructs’ values exceeding 0.7: 0.938 (CCA), 0.913 (VEI), 0.818 (FR), and 0.821 (GSE).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Framing effectiveness varies by psychological trait: loss-framed messages prove more effective for high FR/GSE individuals, while gain-framed messages show advantages for low FR/GSE groups.

    “Importantly, framing effectiveness varies by psychological trait: loss-framed messages prove more effective for high FR/GSE individuals, while gain-framed messages show advantages for low FR/GSE groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The measurement instruments were translated and back-translated to ensure cross-cultural validity, with pilot feedback and independent bilingual experts.

    “Given that these items were adapted from previously validated English scales with positive reporting outcomes, the research team implemented a rigorous translation-back-translation procedure to ensure cross-cultural validity of the measurement instruments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    After including DI1-DI4 as covariates, all path relationships and mediation effects remained significant, demonstrating robustness.

    “Furthermore, after including DI1-DI4 as covariates, all path relationships and mediation effects remained significant, demonstrating the robustness of our findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    112 participants either withdrew from the experiment or failed to pass the screening process.

    “112 participants either withdrew from the experiment or failed to pass the screening process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Message framing operates as a strategic communication tool whose persuasive power depends on both message content and recipients' cognitive-emotional processing.

    “Message framing operates as a strategic communication tool whose persuasive power depends on both message content and recipients’ cognitive-emotional processing [23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] Zhang M, Zhang G-y, Gursoy D. Fu X-r: message framing and regulatory focus effects on destination image formation. Tour Manag. 2018;69:397–407. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Empirical research has demonstrated that those with high GSE are more likely to respond to CCA with proactive behaviors, while individuals low in efficacy are more prone to helplessness or withdrawal.

    “Supporting this view, empirical research has demonstrated that those with high GSE are more likely to respond to CCA with proactive behaviors, while individuals low in efficacy are more prone to helplessness or withdrawal [33].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Qin Z, Wu Q, Bi C, Deng Y, Hu Q. The relationship between climate change anxiety and pro-environmental behavior in adolescents: the mediating role of future self-continuity and the moderating role of green self-efficacy. BMC Psychol. 2024;12(1):241. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The relationships among all variables demonstrated high consistency across both PLS-SEM and PROCESS methodologies, suggesting robust research findings.

    “In summary, the relationships among all variables demonstrated high consistency across both PLS-SEM and PROCESS methodologies, suggesting robust research findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy tend to be more motivated, persistent, and confident in their capacity to address environmental issues.

    “Individuals with high levels of self-efficacy tend to be more motivated, persistent, and confident in their capacity to address environmental issues [40].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] Savari M, Naghibeiranvand F, Asadi Z. Modeling environmentally responsible behaviors among rural women in the forested regions in Iran. Glob Ecol Conserv. 2022;35:e02102.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Loss-framed messages tend to evoke stronger behavioral responses among high-efficacy individuals because such messages are perceived as both personally relevant and actionable.

    “In particular, loss-framed messages, which highlight the negative consequences of failing to act, tend to evoke stronger behavioral responses among high-efficacy individuals because such messages are perceived as both personally relevant and actionable [43].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [43] Florence ES, Fleischman D, Mulcahy R, Wynder M. Message framing effects on sustainable consumer behaviour: a systematic review and future research directions for social marketing. J Social Mark. 2022;12(4):623–52.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study used a randomized group experimental design with 788 participants, randomly assigned evenly to a gain-framed group (n = 394) and a loss-framed group (n = 394).

    “This study employed a randomized group experimental design with a total of 788 participants. Through random assignment, participants were evenly divided into a gain-framed group (n = 394) and a loss-framed group (n = 394).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All returned questionnaires underwent a rigorous screening process, including attention check verification, IP address uniqueness verification, and a minimum completion time threshold of 150 s.

    “All returned questionnaires underwent a rigorous screening process, including attention check verification, IP address uniqueness verification, and a minimum completion time threshold of 150 s.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    CFA showed all items except GSE1 had factor loadings greater than 0.7, ranging from 0.717 (GSE5) to 0.869 (VEI1); GSE1 had a loading of 0.653.

    “The CFA results revealed that, with the exception of item GSE1 (0.653), all items exhibited factor loadings greater than 0.7, ranging from 0.717 (GSE5) to 0.869 (VEI1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Having participants first receive neutral introductory information before the framing treatment effectively controlled for confounding effects arising from differences in prior knowledge.

    “By having participants first receive neutral introductory information before the framing treatment, we effectively controlled for confounding effects arising from differences in prior knowledge.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Participants were not informed that message framing was the experimental manipulation, to minimize demand effects.

    “To minimize demand effects, participants were not informed that message framing was the experimental manipulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly recruited through a leading Chinese online experimental management platform.

    “900 Chinese citizens eligible for PCT were randomly recruited through a leading Chinese online experimental management platform (Wenjuanxing, www.wjx.cn).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Quota sampling was employed to maintain a relatively balanced gender distribution to ensure sample representativeness.

    “To ensure sample representativeness, we employed quota sampling to maintain a relatively balanced gender distribution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The loss-framed group not only directly enhanced VEI but also indirectly promoted VEI by increasing individuals' CCA.

    “Specifically, loss-framed group (compared to gain-framed group) not only directly enhanced VEI but also indirectly promoted VEI by increasing individuals’ CCA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were randomly assigned to either a gain-framed group or a loss-framed group.

    “Subsequently, participants were randomly assigned to either a gain-framed group or a loss-framed group, receiving differently framed PCT promotional messages.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to fear appeal theories, individuals must believe that they have the capacity to mitigate a threat in order for fear to lead to constructive action; otherwise, fear may result in psychological disengagement or avoidance.

    “According to fear appeal theories, individuals must believe that they have the capacity to mitigate a threat in order for fear to lead to constructive action; otherwise, fear may result in psychological disengagement or avoidance [42].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [42] Armbruster ST, Manchanda RV, Vo N. When are loss-framed messages more effective in climate change communication? An application of fear appeal theory. Sustainability. 2022;14(12):7411. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The framing stimuli were designed with structural consistency: maintaining identical sentence structures and linguistic complexity.

    “(2) Structural consistency: Maintaining identical sentence structures and linguistic complexity;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Optimal framing depends on audience responsibility levels: loss-framed messages excel for high-FR groups, while gain-framed messages show relative advantages for low-FR groups.

    “The crossing pattern indicates optimal framing depends on audience responsibility levels: loss-framed messages excel for high-FR groups, while gain-framed messages show relative advantages for low-FR groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A meta-analysis of 61 framing studies in environmental communication revealed that loss-framed appeals were generally more effective in shaping intentions and behaviors, particularly through the evocation of negative emotions such as anxiety and fear.

    “A meta-analysis of 61 framing studies in environmental communication revealed that loss-framed appeals were generally more effective in shaping intentions and behaviors, particularly through the evocation of negative emotions such as anxiety and fear [30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] Homar AR, Cvelbar LK. The effects of framing on environmental decisions: a systematic literature review. Ecol Econ. 2021;183:106950. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The final dataset comprised 788 valid responses, yielding an effective response rate of 87.56%.

    “The final dataset comprised 788 valid responses, yielding an effective response rate of 87.56%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Average Variance Extracted values for all constructs exceeded 0.5: 0.576 (CCA), 0.696 (VEI), 0.578 (FR), and 0.528 (GSE), indicating acceptable convergent validity.

    “The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for all constructs exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.5, specifically 0.576 (CCA), 0.696 (VEI), 0.578 (FR), and 0.528 (GSE), indicating acceptable convergent validity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Individuals confident in their environmental capabilities respond more strongly to threat-based messaging, whereas those lacking confidence benefit more from opportunity-focused appeals.

    “This pattern suggests that individuals confident in their environmental capabilities respond more strongly to threat-based messaging, whereas those lacking confidence benefit more from opportunity-focused appeals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Individuals with strong environmental responsibility maintain elevated anxiety even under gain framing, while low-FR individuals' anxiety is more malleable by message tone.

    “Substantively, this suggests individuals with strong environmental responsibility maintain elevated anxiety even under gain framing, while low-FR individuals’ anxiety is more malleable by message tone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    Exposure time for promotional messages was fixed at 30 s for both groups.

    “(4) Exposure time control: The viewing duration for promotional messages was fixed at 30 s for both groups, during which participants could independently read the framing message to ensure thorough comprehension [47].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [47] Rothman AJ, Salovey P. Shaping perceptions to motivate healthy behavior: the role of message framing. Psychol Bull. 1997;121(1):3. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data collection relied entirely on anonymous questionnaires, with no personal identifiers collected.

    “Notably, our data collection relied entirely on anonymous questionnaires, with no personal identifiers collected.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Participants were presented with a comprehensive disclosure statement outlining research objectives, methodological approach, risks and rewards, privacy protection protocols, and emphasizing voluntary participation.

    “Participants accessed an online survey platform where they were first presented with a comprehensive disclosure statement. This statement outlined the research objectives, methodological approach, associated risks and rewards, privacy protection protocols, and emphasized the voluntary nature of participation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study controlled and limited participants' discussion of the experiment and prevented exposure to other participants to enhance internal validity and minimize demand characteristics.

    “Throughout the experimental procedure, we attempted to enhance internal validity by controlling and limiting participants’ discussion of the experiment, and minimize demand characteristics by preventing exposure to other participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Both sets of information maintained consistency in structure and complexity, differing only in their framing orientation.

    “Both sets of information maintained consistency in structure and complexity, differing only in their framing orientation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The framing stimuli were designed with comprehensibility: clear and easily understandable expressions.

    “(3) Comprehensibility: Considering potential heterogeneity in participants’ comprehension abilities, we employed clear and easily understandable expressions;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    PLS-SEM model fit was acceptable: SRMR = 0.092, d_G = 0.554, and NFI = 0.898.

    “The model fit evaluation revealed that the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) was 0.092, which is below the threshold of 0.1; the geodesic distance (d_G) was 0.554, falling below 0.95; and the Normed Fit Index (NFI) was 0.898, exceeding 0.8. These indices collectively suggest acceptable model fit [58].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [58] Hu Lt, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equation Modeling: Multidisciplinary J. 1999;6(1):1–55. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    H4a and H5a were empirically supported (FR and GSE moderate the effect of message framing on VEI).

    “Therefore, H4a and H5a were empirically supported.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This study contributes evidence-based communication strategies for promoting voluntary engagement in carbon governance systems.

    “This study contributes evidence-based communication strategies for promoting voluntary engagement in carbon governance systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Existing literature suggests that anxiety may exhibit an inverted-U relationship with behavioral outcomes.

    “existing literature suggests that anxiety may exhibit an inverted-U relationship with behavioral outcomes [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Witte K. Putting the fear back into fear appeals: the extended parallel process model. Commun Monogr. 1992;59(4):329–49. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The experimental manipulation likely induced moderate anxiety levels, which may explain why a positive mediating effect was observed rather than the debilitating effects associated with extreme anxiety.

    “Our experimental manipulation likely induced moderate anxiety levels, which may explain why we observed a positive mediating effect rather than the debilitating effects associated with extreme anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Measuring FR and GSE at population scale poses practical challenges.

    “While our findings support tailoring messages to psychological traits (FR and GSE), we acknowledge that measuring these traits at population scale poses practical challenges.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study demonstrates moderation effects under controlled experimental conditions but does not validate implementation strategies.

    “Our study demonstrates moderation effects under controlled experimental conditions but does not validate implementation strategies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The study exclusively recruited participants from mainland China (N = 788), which constrains the generalizability of findings across different cultural and socioeconomic contexts.

    “The study exclusively recruited participants from mainland China (N = 788), which constrains the generalizability of our findings across different cultural and socioeconomic contexts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There may be significant discrepancies between behavioral intentions and actual behaviors in the environmental protection field.

    “In the environmental protection field, there may be significant discrepancies between behavioral intentions and actual behaviors [73].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Kollmuss A, Agyeman J. Mind the gap: why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior? Environ Educ Res. 2002;8(3):239–60. source

      Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Limitations include sample homogeneity, intention-behavior gap, and single-country context.

    “Limitations include sample homogeneity, intention-behavior gap, and single-country context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sampling approach may have underrepresented rural populations and low-income groups.

    “Furthermore, our sampling approach may have underrepresented rural populations and low-income groups.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The demographic composition skews toward middle-aged (71.83% aged 26-45) and college-educated individuals (66.75%), likely overrepresenting populations with higher environmental awareness and digital literacy.

    “First, our sample demonstrates three interrelated limitations that affect generalizability. First, the demographic composition skews toward middle-aged (71.83% aged 26–45) and college-educated individuals (66.75%), likely overrepresenting populations with higher environmental awareness and digital literacy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study measured immediate VEI through online experiments but did not track actual behaviors such as carbon trading frequency or emission reduction.

    “This study measured immediate VEI through online experiments but did not track actual behaviors (such as carbon trading frequency or emission reduction).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The positive findings likely reflect moderate anxiety levels induced by the experimental stimuli and the presence of efficacy-enhancing factors in the context.

    “However, our positive findings likely reflect moderate anxiety levels induced by our experimental stimuli and the presence of efficacy-enhancing factors in our context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Reliance on static textual stimuli leaves unexamined whether alternative communication formats might enhance framing effectiveness.

    “Finally, our reliance on static textual stimuli leaves unexamined whether alternative communication formats might enhance framing effectiveness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The finding that loss-framed messages are superior extends the application of message framing to low-carbon behavior domains and demonstrates its applicability in complex policy instruments such as PCT.

    “This finding extends the application of message framing in low-carbon behavior domains, demonstrating its applicability in complex policy instruments such as PCT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
70 of 70

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Individuals with low FR are less likely to view climate change as their personal duty.

    “In contrast, individuals with low FR are less likely to view climate change as their personal duty.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    When intrinsic motivation is low, stronger external incentives are necessary to encourage participation in PCT.

    “When intrinsic motivation is low, stronger external incentives are necessary to encourage participation in PCT.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a context-specific theoretical gap in market-based environmental instruments that this study addresses.

    “While PCT participation constitutes pro-environmental behavior, this study addresses context-specific theoretical gaps in market-based environmental instruments.”
3 of 3

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: F(1,782) = 9.723, p < .001

    Minor

    The paper reports p < .001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .002. The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.

    Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .002

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upF(1, 782) = 9.723reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .002

    “F(1,782) = 9.723, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(786) = 30.42reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(786) = 30.42, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 786) = 46.706reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1, 786) = 46.706, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 785) = 352.8907reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2, 785) = 352.8907, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(3, 784) = 234.623reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(3, 784) = 234.623, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(7, 780) = 199.913reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(7, 780) = 199.913, p < .001”

6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Reported FR moderation runs opposite to H4b

    Major

    H4b predicts a stronger loss-framing effect on anxiety at high FR, but the reported slopes show a stronger effect at low FR. The results nevertheless say H4b is supported.

  • Male subgroup counts do not match the reported total

    Minor

    The gain- and loss-frame male counts sum to 407, not the reported 447.

    Reported 447 · recomputed 407

  • Female subgroup counts do not match the reported total

    Minor

    The gain- and loss-frame female counts sum to 381, not the reported 341.

    Reported 341 · recomputed 381

  • ANCOVA degrees of freedom do not reflect dummy-coded demographics

    Minor

    Gender, age, education, and income have 2, 5, 3, and 6 categories, respectively. Dummy-coding them would require 12 demographic predictors and leave 774 residual degrees of freedom after including framing and an intercept; the reported 782 is consistent with only four demographic predictors.

  • Mediation analysis gives two different indirect effects

    Minor

    The mediation results report the indirect effect as −0.249 and then as −0.199, without identifying them as different models or estimates.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Frey BS, Oberholzer-Gee F. The cost of price incentives: an empirical analysis of motivation crowding-out. Am Econ Rev. 1997;87(4):746–55.
  2. Kai-Ineman D, Tversky A. Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica. 1979;47(2):363–91.
  3. Hair, JF, Hult, GTM., Ringle, CM, Sarstedt, MA. Primer on Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). Publications, SAGE. 2017.
  4. Gutiérrez-García AG, Contreras CM. Anxiety: an adaptive emotion. New Insights into Anxiety Disorders. 2013;1(2):21–37.
  5. Ojala M. Regulating worry, promoting hope: how do children, adolescents, and young adults cope with climate change? Int J Environ Sci Educ. 2012;7(4):537–61.
  6. Hofstede G. Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Sage publications; 2001.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Li, T., Yang, Y., Liu, X., & Zeng, S.
Affiliations
  • Shanxi Institute of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering (CN)
  • Sichuan Tourism University (CN)
  • Sichuan University (CN)
  • Chengdu University of Information Technology (CN)
Corresponding author
  • Yang, Yutao
  • Zeng, Siyu
ORCID
Venue
BMC Psychology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2025-12-29
Volume
13
Issue
1
Pages
1381-1381
ISSN
2050-7283 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/s40359-025-03713-w
PMC
PMC12751754
OpenAlex
W7117476820
Cited by
1
References
58
Citations by year
2026: 1
FWCI
1.15
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • BMC Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • the Project in Research Center for Ecological Civilization, the Chengdu University of Technology (XBST2025-ZC005)
  • Northwest Sichuan Ecological Economic Development Research Center, Sichuan Minzu College (CXBSTJJ202505)
  • the Humanities and Social Science Fund of Ministry of Education of China (24XJC630002)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Management, Monitoring, Policy and Law › Environmental Education and Sustainability
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Climate Change Policy and Economics
Keywords
personal carbon trading, message framing, loss framing, gain framing, climate anxiety, sense of responsibility, green self-efficacy, voluntary participation, environmental communication, low-carbon behavior, climate change mitigation, norm activation model, self-efficacy theory, prospect theory
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Adult, Anxiety, Carbon, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Self Efficacy, Intention, Young Adult, Climate Change

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-05.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-05.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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