The DOI matches its Crossref record; 151 of the 151 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A Meta-Analysis of Fear Appeals: Implications for Effective Public Health Campaigns
Abstract
The fear appeal literature is examined in a comprehensive synthesis using meta-analytical techniques. The meta-analysis suggests that strong fear appeals produce high levels of perceived severity and susceptibility, and are more persuasive than low or weak fear appeals. The results also indicate that fear appeals motivate adaptive danger control actions such as message acceptance and maladaptive fear control actions such as defensive avoidance or reactance. It appears that strong fear appeals and high-efficacy messages produce the greatest behavior change, whereas strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses. Future directions and practical implications are provided.
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In the citing paper
“Three meta-analyses have tested whether the inclusion of efficacy statements in fear appeals leads to increased effectiveness, and all found support for the weak hypothesis (de Hoog et al., 2007; Mongeau, 1998; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“The linear and curvilinear models have been tested in prior meta-analyses, and the linear model has consistently been supported by existing data, whereas the curvilinear model has not (e.g., Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“Although some meta-analytic examinations have found positive effects of fear appeals on some outcomes (Witte & Allen, 2000), others have found null effects (de Hoog et al., 2007) or even negative effects (Peters et al., 2012).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“These results confirm the conclusions of prior meta-analyses concerning the use of efficacy statements (de Hoog et al., 2007; Peters et al., 2012; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
From Appealing to fear: A meta-analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories (2015) · cites this paper as Witte & Allen, 2000
In the citing paper
“leads to defensive reactions when they feel helpless to act 8”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“appealing to fear leads people to change their behaviour if they feel capable of dealing with the threat”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“strong fear appeals with low-efficacy messages produce the greatest levels of defensive responses.”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“strong fear appeals produce the greatest behaviour change only when people feel a sense of efficacy”
From Using social and behavioural science to support COVID-19 pandemic response (2020) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Conversely, individuals with low GSE may view the same loss-framed messages as intimidating or demotivating, since they do not believe their actions will make a significant difference [45].”
From The power of loss: message framing, climate anxiety, and engagement in personal carbon trading (2025) · cites this paper as [45]
In the citing paper
“This is consistent with previous research and theory on fear appeals, which has found that such appeals increase fear as a mechanism for attitude, intention and behavioural change.87”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“Previous fear appeal research and theory also suggest that fear-oriented communications can elicit reactance.87”
From Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: a meta-analysis of experimental studies (2016) · cites this paper as [87]
In the citing paper
“An early meta-analysis by Witte and Allen [34] revealed that fear appeals can actually increase the perception of the severity of the health threat inducing behaviour changes, at least as long as the individuals believe that they are able to protect themselves and avert the threat.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Meta-analysis have shown that response efficacy is a stronger predictor of intention to change than the emotion of fear (Floyd et al., 2000; Witte & Allen, 2000).”
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“A meta-analysis suggests that this can be effective if people feel capable of dealing with the threat (high degree of self-efficacy), but can be counterproductive and lead to defensive behaviors (flight, flight, or freeze) if people feel powerless to act (45).”
BackgroundA decade of wireless emergency alerts: A longitudinal assessment of message content and completeness
Olson, M. K., Sutton, J. N., Cain, L. B., & Waugh, N. (2023) · Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management · doi:10.1111/1468-5973.12518 · Cited by 29
Abril, E. P., Szczypka, G., & Emery, S. (2017) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2016.1273921 · Cited by 29
Muscogiuri, G., Barrea, L., Laudisio, D., Pugliese, G., Aprano, S., Framondi, L., Matteo, R. D., Riccio, P. A., Savastano, S., & Colao, A. (2020) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637486.2020.1765152 · Cited by 30
Zhang, X. A. (2021) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2021.1887326 · Cited by 29
“In other words, effective risk communication messages should involve and strike a balance between both efficacy and threat messages (Vos et al. 2018; Witte and Allen 2000).”
BackgroundResultPsychological predictors of prevention behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic
Broomell, S. B., Chapman, G. B., & Downs, J. S. (2020) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/237946152000600206 · Cited by 29
O’Keefe, D. J. (2021) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqab017 · Cited by 29
Ahn, A. Y. E., Takikawa, H., Maly, E., Bostrom, A., Kuriyama, S., Matsubara, H., Izumi, T., Torayashiki, T., & Imamura, F. (2021) · International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction · doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102624 · Cited by 29
Apaolaza, V., Paredes, M. R., Hartmann, P., Merino, J. D. G., & Marcos, A. (2022) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2022.103255 · Cited by 31
“individual will engage in behaviors to protect himself/herself from the threat (Floyd et al., 2000; Witte and Allen, 2000).”
Becheur, I., & Valette‐Florence, P. (2014) · Recherche et Applications en Marketing (French Edition) · doi:10.1177/0767370114538901 · Cited by 29
Collymore, N. N., & McDermott, M. R. (2015) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105314567910 · Cited by 32
Anxiety Induction in Virtual Environments: An Experimental Comparison of Three General Techniques
Chittaro, L. (2013) · Interacting with Computers · doi:10.1093/iwc/iwt049 · Cited by 29
Hollands, G. J., & Marteau, T. M. (2012) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12016 · Cited by 29
Kim, H. S., Forquer, H. A., Rusko, J., Hornik, R., & Cappella, J. N. (2016) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2015.1090907 · Cited by 29
Symes, W., & Putwain, D. W. (2016) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12117 · Cited by 29
Metadata
- Authors
- Witte, K., & Allen, M.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- ORCID
- Allen, Mike
- Venue
- Health Education & Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2000-10
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 591-615
- ISSN
- 1090-1981 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-6127
- OpenAlex
- W1997092577
- Cited by
- 3,216
- References
- 144
- Citations by year
- 2026: 154 · 2025: 152 · 2024: 141 · 2023: 211 · 2022: 215 · 2021: 269 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 133 · 2018: 154 · 2017: 166 · 2016: 148 · 2015: 156 · 2014: 165 · 2013: 142 · 2012: 119
- FWCI
- 20.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Education & Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Communication › Media Influence and Health
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Risk Perception and Management
- Keywords
- fear appeals, public health campaigns, perceived severity, perceived susceptibility, defensive avoidance, reactance, message acceptance, behavior change, persuasive communication
- MeSH terms
- Fear, Health Education, Humans, Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice, Persuasive Communication, Public Health
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