A framework for predicting the non-visual effects of daylight – Part I: photobiology- based model
Open accessAbstract
This paper investigates the formulation of a modelling framework for the non-visual effects of daylight, such as entrainment of the circadian system and maintenance of alertness. The body of empirical data from photobiology studies is now sufficient to start developing preliminary non-visual lighting evaluation methods for lighting design. Eventually, these non-visual effects have the potential to become a relevant quantity to consider when assessing the overall daylighting performance of a space. This paper describes the assumptions and general approach that were developed to propose a modeling framework for occupant exposure to non-visual effects of light, and presents a novel means of visualising the ‘circadian potential’ of a point in space. The proposed approach uses current outcomes of photobiology research to define – at this point static – threshold values for illumination in terms of spectrum, intensity and timing of light at the human eye. These values are then translated into goals for lighting simulation, based on vertical illuminance at the eye, that – ultimately – could become goals for building design. A new climate-based simulation model has been developed to apply these concepts to a residential environment. This will be described in Part 2 of this paper.
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In the early to mid-morning (06:00 to 10:00) and in the evening (18:00 to 22:00), humans experience a state of transition, which is a "heat gain" in the morning and a "heat loss" in the evening.
“In fact, in the early to mid-morning (06:00 to 10:00) and in the evening (18:00 to 22:00), humans experience a state of transition [90], which is a “heat gain” in the morning (as the core body temperature climbs) and a “heat loss” in the evening (as the core body temperature drops).”
From Human thermal perception and time of day: A review (2021) · cites this paper as [90]
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Bellia, L., Pedace, A., & Barbato, G. (2014) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.12.021 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
From radiometry to circadian photometry: A theoretical approach
Bellia, L., & Bisegna, F. (2013) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2013.01.005 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
West, A. S., Simonsen, S. A., Zielinski, A. H., Cyril, N., Schønsted, M., Jennum, P., Sander, B., & Iversen, H. K. (2019) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-182565 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Ratajczak, J., Siegele, D., & Niederwieser, E. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13071790 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Tan, Y., Peng, J., Luo, Z., Luo, Y., Ma, T., Ji, J., Yang, H., Wang, F., & Zhu, M. (2023) · Renewable Energy · doi:10.1016/j.renene.2023.119257 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Identifying relationships between daylight variables and human preferences in a climate chamber
Krüger, E. L., Tamura, C. A., & Trento, T. P. W. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.164 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
West, A. S., Sennels, H. P., Simonsen, S. A., Schønsted, M., Zielinski, A. H., Hansen, N. C., Jennum, P., Sander, B., Wolfram, F., & Iversen, H. K. (2019) · International Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijms.28863 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“However, measurement of the incoming sunlight revealed no significant differences between the two units [14], assuming that levels above 200 lux were required to stimulate the circadian center [38].”
BackgroundLighting in the Workplace: Recommended Illuminance (lux) at Workplace Environs
Preto, S., & Gomes, C. C. (2018) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94622-1_18 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Roadmap for improving roof and façade windows in nearly zero-energy houses in Europe
Skarning, G. C. J., Hviid, C. A., & Svendsen, S. (2016) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.038 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“The establishment of reasonable daylight criteria is an issue that is under continuous debate, supported by ongoing research on the effects of daylighting on human health [29,30].”
BackgroundSithravel, R., Ibrahim, R., Lye, M. S., Perimal, E. K., Ibrahim, N., & Dahlan, N. D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207488 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The implementation of natural lighting for human health from a planning perspective
Mardaljevic, J. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535211022145 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationClimate-based daylight analysis of fixed shading devices in an open-plan office
Esquivias, P. M., Muñoz-González, C., Acosta, I., Moreno-Rangel, D., & Casas, J. N. (2015) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153514563638 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Andersen, M., Guillemin, A., Ámundadóttir, M. L., & Rockcastle, S. (2013) · Building Simulation Conference proceedings · doi:10.26868/25222708.2013.1318 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The model outputs are time-sampled relative non-visual responses, that we will use as proxy for healthy non-visual lightexposure in the same way we previously used subjective alertness (Pechacek et al., 2008; Gochenour & Andersen, 2009; Andersen et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationOptimization of LED Lighting for Clinical Settings
Soltic, S., & Chalmers, A. N. (2019) · Journal of Healthcare Engineering · doi:10.1155/2019/5016013 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Kim, K. R., & Lee, K. (2024) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings14051248 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Rethinking daylighting and compliance
Mardaljevic, J. (2014) · Arrow - TU Dublin (Technological University Dublin) · doi:10.21427/d7hj0c · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The mechanisms for these effects are not yet fully understood, and it is not yet known what the preferred exposure levels should be, nor if existing guidelines would be effective for these quantities [2].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSimulations of non-image-forming effects of light in building design: A literature review
Gkaintatzi-Masouti, M., van Duijnhoven, J., & Aarts, M. M. (2022) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535221142812 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
A systematic literature review: Building window's influence on indoor circadian health
Ardabili, N. G., Wang, J., & Wang, N. (2023) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2023.113796 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Giuliani, F., Sokół, N., Verso, V. R. M. L., Viula, R., Caffaro, F., Paule, B., Diakite, A., & Sutter, Y. (2019) · Architectural Science Review · doi:10.1080/00038628.2019.1675042 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Moreover, given its impact on the human circadian rhythm, is it also regarded as an important resource for the creation of healthy indoor environments (van Bommel 2006; Andersen, Mardaljevic, and Lockley 2012; Veitch and Galasiu 2012 Bellia and Bisegna 2013; Amundadottir et al. 2017).”
BackgroundAnalytical evolution of measurement methods for light's non-visual effects
Noor, M. C., Saradj, F. M., & Yazdanfar, S.-A. (2023) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2023.100922 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Hao, H., Xu, J., & Schlangen, L. J. M. (2024) · Journal of Building Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111293 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Price, L., Khazova, M., & Udovičić, L. (2021) · Annals of Work Exposures and Health · doi:10.1093/annweh/wxab092 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“A day-time exposure schedule may not be universally appropriate, for example for night shift nurses who work during the hours of darkness (Andersen et al., 2012) or workers and patients needing to sleep during daylight hours.”
BackgroundSithravel, R., & Ibrahim, R. (2019) · Indoor and Built Environment · doi:10.1177/1420326x19889656 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Andersen et al.70 highlighted BL in the afternoon may improve alertness, but would not exert substantial phase-shifting effects on the circadian system.”
BackgroundInfluentialKim, S., & Casement, M. D. (2024) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2024.2341156 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“It is also reported that higher light intensity, ranging from 2,000 to 10 000 lux has shown larger effects in treating various sleep-related problems, including circadian rhythm sleep disorders and insomnia (Andersen et al. 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialLuca, F. D. (2019) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8410-3_2 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Chaithra, R., Harshitha, D., & Renuka, C. G. (2025) · Journal of Fluorescence · doi:10.1007/s10895-024-04121-w · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“An in-depth knowledge of Spectral Power Distribution (SPD) is vital for successful optical systems implementation [78].”
On the Role of Exponential Smoothing in Circadian Dosimetry
Price, L. (2014) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1111/php.12282 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Pathway to Zero Energy Windows: Advancing Technologies and Market Adoption
Harris, C. (2022) · doi:10.2172/1866581 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“, sleep-wake cycle regulation, circadian rhythm, seasonal affective disorder, sense of well-being) [18, 19], and with scholastic performance [20].”
BackgroundDAYLIGHT, HUMAN HEALTH, AND DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABLE GREEN BUILDINGS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Lee, J., Boubekri, M., & Park, J. (2022) · Journal of Green Building · doi:10.3992/jgb.17.4.151 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Hartman, P., Maňková, L., Hanuliak, P., & Hraška, J. (2015) · Energy Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.11.079 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Tsangrassoulis, A. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20831-2_21 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Pandemic of Childhood Myopia. Could New Indoor LED Lighting Be Part of the Solution?
Moyano, D. B., & González‐Lezcano, R. A. (2021) · Energies · doi:10.3390/en14133827 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“It is desirable that people are exposed to bright light during 10:00–18:00 for its potential to increase alertness [54,55].”
BackgroundÁmundadóttir, M. L., Lockley, S. W., & Andersen, M. (2013) · Building Simulation Conference proceedings · doi:10.26868/25222708.2013.1269 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“This study was extended and modified by Andersen et al. (2012), where the 24-hour day was divided into three periods to distinguish between the effects of exposure time.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationMonitoring and rendering of visual and photo-biological properties of daylight-redirecting systems
Borisuit, A., Kämpf, J. H., Münch, M. Y., Thanachareonkit, A., & Scartezzini, J. (2016) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2015.12.052 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…illuminance thresholds were considered as ‘‘benchmark” for non-visual aspects of each light source (mainly for daylight as D55, D65 or D75) (Andersen et al., 2011); the threshold values were used in DAYSIM, a computer software based on RADIANCE, in order to predict alerting levels as…”
MethodAdamsson, M., Laike, T., & Morita, T. (2018) · LEUKOS The Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America · doi:10.1080/15502724.2017.1391101 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“As a result of increasing knowledge of the field, different models and sensitivity functions for estimating the non-image-forming effects of light radiation have been proposed, although recent findings provide a more complex picture of how light radiation of different intensities and spectral compositions affects the…”
BackgroundStebelová, K., Kováčová, K., Dzirbíková, Z., Hanuliak, P., Bacigál, T., Hartman, P., Vargová, A., & Hraška, J. (2023) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.111025 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Potočnik, J., & Košir, M. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13051357 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Should an Artificial Window Substitute a Natural One?
Gomes, C. C., & Preto, S. (2017) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-60492-3_24 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bisht, D. S., Kumar, V., Singh, S., Garg, H., & Kumar, R. R. S. (2023) · Solar Energy · doi:10.1016/j.solener.2023.112066 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Analyzing potential correlations between light exposure and skin temperature in a climate chamber
Tamura, C. A., Krüger, E. L., Wagner, A., & Strauhs, F. D. R. (2021) · Building and Environment · doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2021.108242 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Kim, K. R., Lee, K. S., & Cho, H. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15162955 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Effect of the Colour Selection for Internal Surfaces on Non-Visual Daylight Human Response
Hartman, P., Hanuliak, P., Maňková, L., & Hraška, J. (2014) · Advanced materials research · doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1057.231 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Statistical Methods Applied to Optimize Perforated Façade Design for Daylight Availability
Chi, D. A., Moreno-Rangel, D., & Casas, J. N. (2018) · Journal of Architectural Engineering · doi:10.1061/(asce)ae.1943-5568.0000339 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Spatial representations of melanopic light in architecture
Lalande, P., Demers, C. M. H., Lalonde, J., Potvin, A., & Hébert, M. (2020) · Architectural Science Review · doi:10.1080/00038628.2020.1785383 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…Skene 2001; Lucas et al. 2014) has led researchers in architectural daylighting to integrate newly developed melanopic metrics into architecture (Andersen, Mardaljevic, and Lockley 2012; Bellia and Seraceni 2013; Konis 2017; Ámundadóttir et al. 2017; Chen, Zhang, andDu 2019), such as Circadian…”
BackgroundHong, L., Wang, C., & Zhang, X. (2024) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings14041090 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Sustainable Architecture and Human Health: A Case for Effective Circadian Daylighting Metrics
Mukherjee, B., & Boubekri, M. (2025) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings15030315 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“While the exact boundaries of the timing of light exposure have not yet been defined, Andersen et al. [32] have defined three distinct timings for circadian entrainment.”
Cheng, X., Yan, Y., Hu, T., Lv, Y., & Zeng, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1093602 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Capped graph (Andersen et al., 2012) 2012 Yes Yes Yes Yes No Architectural space”
BackgroundRastegari, E., Adamsson, M., & Aries, M. M. (2024) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535241268606 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“49 According to their model, the circadian system’s phase-resetting can occur from 06.00 to 10.00, during which sufficient daylight exposure can set the biological clock to phase-advance in most individuals.”
InfluentialThe impact of the primary colours yellow, red and, blue on the perception of greenery
Thorpert, P., Englund, J., & Nielsen, A. B. (2018) · Landscape Research · doi:10.1080/01426397.2017.1413177 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Evaluating the overall impression of concert lighting: An integrated approach
Lo, V., & Steemers, K. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/14771535211014787 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Aelenei, D., Aelenei, L., Loonen, R., Perino, M., Serra, V., Asdrubali, F., & Desideri, U. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-812817-6.00039-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Landscape Analysis: Connected Lighting System
Chaichi, N., & Daim, T. U. (2018) · Innovation, technology and knowledge management · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68987-6_3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Yilmaz, F. (2021) · Lighting Research & Technology · doi:10.1177/1477153520987420 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Andersen, M., Mardaljevic, J., & Lockley, S.
- Affiliations
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (CH)
- De Montfort University (GB)
- Division of Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Division of Sleep Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Corresponding author
- Andersen, M
- Venue
- Lighting Research & Technology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2012-02-13
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 37-53
- ISSN
- 0024-3426 (ISSN-L)
- 1477-1535
- 1477-0938
- OpenAlex
- W2103289434
- Cited by
- 177
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 4.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- dspace.lboro.ac.uk
- Licence
- Locations
- Lighting Research & Technology (publishedVersion)
- DMU Open Research Archive (De Montfort University) (submittedVersion)
- Loughborough University Institutional Repository (Loughborough University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Surrey Research Insight Open Access (The University of Surrey) (submittedVersion)
- Loughborough University Research Repository (Loughborough University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion)
- Infoscience (Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Building Energy and Comfort Optimization
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Impact of Light on Environment and Health
- Keywords
- circadian entrainment, alertness, photobiology, lighting simulation
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