Menstrual cycle phase and carbohydrate ingestion alter immune response following endurance exercise and high intensity time trial performance test under hot conditions
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Sex hormones are known to regulate some responses during exercise. Evaluation of the differences in exercise response with regard to menstrual cycle will help understand the menstrual cycle phase specific adaptations to exercise and athletic performance. METHODS: We investigated the effects of menstrual cycle phase and carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion on immune response during endurance exercise at 30°C. Six healthy women completed 4 trials comprising 90 min of cycling at 50% peak aerobic power [Formula: see text] and a high intensity time trial performance test (POST). They ingested a placebo- or CHO-containing beverage during the trials, which were performed during both the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. In all trials, thermoregulatory, cardiorespiratory, and immune responses were measured during exercise and after POST. RESULTS: Although the thermoregulatory responses differed between the menstrual cycle phases, the cardiorespiratory responses were not different. After placebo ingestion, leukocyte concentration (cells/μL) at POST (15.9 × 10(3)) in the luteal phase was significantly higher than that in the follicular phase (12.9 × 10(3)). The rise in leukocyte concentration was attenuated upon CHO ingestion, and the difference between menstrual cycle phases disappeared. A significant positive correlation was found between leukocyte concentration and serum free fatty acid concentrations. Interleukin-6, calprotectin, and myeloperoxidase concentrations significantly increased at POST in all trials, but no significant differences were observed between menstrual cycle phase or beverage type. Concentrations of other cytokines did not change during exercise in any of the 4 trials. Menstrual cycle phase and beverage type had no significant effect on the POST outcome. Thus, differences in leukocyte mobilization between menstrual cycle phases could result from the effect of sex hormones on substrate utilization. CONCLUSIONS: The menstrual cycle affected circulating leukocyte concentrations during endurance exercise with POST when a placebo was ingested. Therefore, we recommend ingesting CHO beverages to attenuate immune disturbances, especially in the luteal phase, even though they are unlikely to enhance test performance.
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During the follicular phase in endurance-trained women, the greatest exogenous CHO oxidation and endogenous CHO sparing are observed when CHO is ingested at 60 g/h, with no further increases when the rate is increased to 90 g/h.
“During the follicular phase in endurance-trained women, the greatest exogenous CHO oxidation and endogenous CHO sparing were observed when CHO was ingested at a rate of 60 g·h−1 with no further increases when the rate was increased to 90 g·h−1 [212].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [212]
The Experimental design section (page unavailable) describes one carbohydrate beverage and a placebo, not a comparison of 60 and 90 g/h ingestion. Neither the supplied passages nor searches for exogenous oxidation, endogenous carbohydrate sparing, and those intake rates found the claimed finding in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
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- Authors
- Hashimoto, H., Ishijima, T., Hayashida, H., Suzuki, K., & Higuchi, M.
- Affiliations
- Waseda University (JP)
- University of Shiga Prefecture (JP)
- Corresponding author
- Hashimoto, Hideki
- Venue
- Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2014-08-15
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 39-39
- ISSN
- 1550-2783 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4190921
- OpenAlex
- W2120873039
- Cited by
- 37
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2025: 5 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 1.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rehabilitation › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Keywords
- menstrual cycle phases, carbohydrate intake, exercise-induced immunosuppression, endurance exercise, heat stress, sex hormones, leukocyte mobilization, free fatty acids, interleukin-6, calprotectin, myeloperoxidase, female athletes, thermoregulation
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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