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Cited by 129Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaMigration, Health and Trauma

Transgenerational consequences of PTSD: risk factors for the mental health of children whose mothers have been exposed to the Rwandan genocide

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Roth, Maria, Neuner, Frank, Elbert, Thomas·2014·International Journal of Mental Health Systems
DOI 10.1186/1752-4458-8-12PMC PMC3978019
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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Understanding how parental Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) may or may not affect the development and mental health in the offspring is particularly important in conflict regions, where trauma-related illness is endemic. In Rwanda, organised atrocities and the genocide against the Tutsi of 1994 have left a significant fraction of the population with chronic PTSD. The aim of the present investigation was to establish whether PTSD in mothers is associated with symptoms of depression, anxiety, and aggressive and antisocial behaviour in their children. METHODS: A community sample of 125 Rwandan mothers who experienced the genocide of 1994 and their 12-year-old children were interviewed. Using a structured interview, symptoms of maternal PTSD and children's depression, anxiety, and aggressive and antisocial behaviour were assessed by trained and on-site supervised local B.A. psychologists. The interview also included a detailed checklist of event types related to family violence. RESULTS: In showing that a maternal PTSD was not associated with child's psychopathology, the results contradict the assumption of straight "trans-generational trauma transmission". Instead, a child's exposure to maternal family violence posed a significant risk factor for a negative mental health outcome. Furthermore, it was not maternal PTSD-symptoms but mother's exposure to family violence during her own childhood that was associated with the magnitude of adversities that a child experiences at home. CONCLUSIONS: Contrary to a simple model of a trans-generational transmission of trauma, neither maternal PTSD nor maternal traumatic experiences were directly associated with symptoms of anxiety, depression, or antisocial and aggressive behaviour in the children. Instead, the present results suggest a relationship between parental child rearing practices and children's mental health. Furthermore, the study details the "cycle of violence", showing a significant link between maternal violence against a child and its mother's experience of childhood maltreatment.

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  • In the aftermath of the genocide, economic, environmental, mental and physical health problems, along with academic problems among children, have been main factors contributing to domestic violence.

    “in the aftermath of the genocide, economic, environmental, mental and physical health problems, along with academic problems among children, have been the main factors contributing to domestic violence [30].”

    From Contribution of community-based sociotherapy interventions for the psychological well-being of Rwandan youths born to genocide perpetrators and survivors: analysis of the stories telling of a sociotherapy approach (2020) · cites this paper as [30]

    The Discussion (page unavailable) presents children's mental-health problems primarily as consequences of family violence, not as established main contributors to it. It associates maternal violence with mothers' own childhood experiences of family violence, while acknowledging that its cross-sectional data cannot establish causal direction. The paper does not identify the cited list of economic, environmental, physical-health, and academic problems as the main factors contributing to domestic violence. (LLM, conf=0.81)

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  • In some contexts, including families affected by the Khmer Rouge genocide and Rwandan genocide, parental PTSD and maternal violence have been associated with heightened anxiety, depression, and antisocial behaviors in offspring.

    “In some contexts, including families affected by the Khmer Rouge genocide and Rwandan genocide, parental PTSD and maternal violence have been associated with heightened anxiety, depression, and antisocial behaviors in offspring (97–99).”

    From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [98]

    The Results section reports an association between maternal violence at home and children’s psychopathology in the Rwandan sample (r = .59, p < .001). But it found no significant difference in children’s psychopathology between mothers with and without PTSD (p = .11); the Abstract Conclusions likewise say maternal PTSD was not directly associated with children’s anxiety, depression, or antisocial behaviour. This paper does not study Khmer Rouge–affected families. (LLM, conf=0.90)

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  • PTSD among genocide survivors and the transmission of trauma to their descendants and other neighbors has been reported.

    “Concerning the mental health problems in Rwandans, PTSD among the genocide survivors and the transmission of trauma to their descendants and other neighbors was reported [30, 42].”

    From Contribution of community-based sociotherapy interventions for the psychological well-being of Rwandan youths born to genocide perpetrators and survivors: analysis of the stories telling of a sociotherapy approach (2020) · cites this paper as [30]

    The Background reports exceptionally high PTSD prevalence in Rwanda after the genocide. But the Discussion says the study found no association between maternal PTSD and children’s psychopathology, contradicting the claimed transmission to descendants. The paper does not report transmission to neighbors. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Many investigations focus on historically defined trauma-exposed populations, including Holocaust survivors, Rwandan genocide survivors, and Alaska Native communities.

    “Many investigations focus on historically defined trauma-exposed populations, including Holocaust survivors, Rwandan genocide survivors, and Alaska Native communities (8, 82, 98).”

    From Epigenetic changes associated with multi-generational trauma: characterization, mechanisms, and therapeutics (2026) · cites this paper as [98]

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Authors
Roth, M., Neuner, F., & Elbert, T.
Affiliations
  • University of Konstanz (DE)
  • Bielefeld University (DE)
Corresponding author
Elbert, Thomas
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Mental Health Systems
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2014-04-01
Volume
8
Issue
1
Pages
12-12
ISSN
1752-4458 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1186/1752-4458-8-12
PMC
PMC3978019
OpenAlex
W2108451247
Cited by
129
References
80
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 2
FWCI
9.86
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • International Journal of Mental Health Systems (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • KOPS (University of Konstanz) (submittedVersion)
  • PUB – Publications at Bielefeld University (Bielefeld University) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • University of Rwanda
  • Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
  • European Refugee Fund
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
Keywords
post-traumatic stress disorder, maternal PTSD, child mental health, Rwandan genocide, domestic violence, child abuse, depression, anxiety, cycle of violence, child-rearing practices, genocide survivors

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