Cited by 412Nutrition, Health and Food BehaviorNutritional Studies and DietObesity, Physical Activity, Diet

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Are interventions to promote healthy eating equally effective for all? Systematic review of socioeconomic inequalities in impact

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McGill, Rory, Anwar, Elspeth, Orton, Lois, Bromley, Helen, Lloyd-Williams, Ffion, O’Flaherty, Martin, Taylor-Robinson, David, Guzman-Castillo, Maria, Gillespie, Duncan, Moreira, Patricia, Allen, Kirk, Hyseni, Lirije, Calder, Nicola, Petticrew, Mark, White, Martin, Whitehead, Margaret, Capewell, Simon·2015·BMC Public Health

DOI 10.1186/s12889-015-1781-7PMC PMC4423493

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Abstract

BACKGROUND: Interventions to promote healthy eating make a potentially powerful contribution to the primary prevention of non communicable diseases. It is not known whether healthy eating interventions are equally effective among all sections of the population, nor whether they narrow or widen the health gap between rich and poor. We undertook a systematic review of interventions to promote healthy eating to identify whether impacts differ by socioeconomic position (SEP). METHODS: We searched five bibliographic databases using a pre-piloted search strategy. Retrieved articles were screened independently by two reviewers. Healthier diets were defined as the reduced intake of salt, sugar, trans-fats, saturated fat, total fat, or total calories, or increased consumption of fruit, vegetables and wholegrain. Studies were only included if quantitative results were presented by a measure of SEP. Extracted data were categorised with a modified version of the "4Ps" marketing mix, expanded to 6 "Ps": "Price, Place, Product, Prescriptive, Promotion, and Person". RESULTS: Our search identified 31,887 articles. Following screening, 36 studies were included: 18 "Price" interventions, 6 "Place" interventions, 1 "Product" intervention, zero "Prescriptive" interventions, 4 "Promotion" interventions, and 18 "Person" interventions. "Price" interventions were most effective in groups with lower SEP, and may therefore appear likely to reduce inequalities. All interventions that combined taxes and subsidies consistently decreased inequalities. Conversely, interventions categorised as "Person" had a greater impact with increasing SEP, and may therefore appear likely to reduce inequalities. All four dietary counselling interventions appear likely to widen inequalities. We did not find any "Prescriptive" interventions and only one "Product" intervention that presented differential results and had no impact by SEP. More "Place" interventions were identified and none of these interventions were judged as likely to widen inequalities. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions categorised by a "6 Ps" framework show differential effects on healthy eating outcomes by SEP. "Upstream" interventions categorised as "Price" appeared to decrease inequalities, and "downstream" "Person" interventions, especially dietary counselling seemed to increase inequalities. However the vast majority of studies identified did not explore differential effects by SEP. Interventions aimed at improving population health should be routinely evaluated for differential socioeconomic impact.

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Figure 1 Harvest Plot summarising the effects of healthy eating interventions on inequalities*. *Each matrix within the Harvest plot ‘supermatrix’ illustrates our findings for each “P”. Each matrix consists of three columns indicating whether inequalities were reduced, widened or showed no gradient. Each bar represents one intervention. The height of the bar indicates the quality score of the study graded out of 6 [28]. Grey bars indicate interventions with no significance values given concerning the difference in effect of the intervention on SEP. Modelling studies are indicated by patterned barsCC BY · PubMed Central

Figure 2 Flow chart showing the progress of the review. *studies sum to 37 because one study examined several different types of interventions which were included in two separate categories.CC BY · PubMed Central

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Additional file 3 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
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Doustmohammadian, A., & Bazhan, M. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14205186
Additional file 2 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R. W., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608375
Additional file 3 of Real-world nudging, pricing, and mobile physical activity coaching was insufficient to improve lifestyle behaviours and cardiometabolic health: the Supreme Nudge parallel cluster-randomised controlled supermarket trial
Stuber, J. M., Mackenbach, J. D., de Bruijn, G., Gillebaart, M., Hoenink, J. C., Middel, C. N. H., de Ridder, D. T. D., van der Schouw, Y. T., Smit, E. G., Velema, E., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26675756
Additional file 1 of Which government policies to create sustainable food systems have the potential to simultaneously address undernutrition, obesity and environmental sustainability?
Burgaz, C., Van-Dam, I., Garton, K., Swinburn, B. A., Sacks, G., Asiki, G., Claro, R. M., Diouf, A., Bartoletto Martins, A. P., & Vandevijvere, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26754535
Additional file 4 of Which government policies to create sustainable food systems have the potential to simultaneously address undernutrition, obesity and environmental sustainability?
Burgaz, C., Van-Dam, I., Garton, K., Swinburn, B. A., Sacks, G., Asiki, G., Claro, R. M., Diouf, A., Bartoletto Martins, A. P., & Vandevijvere, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26754544
Additional file 7 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608390
Additional file 2 of Social marketing-based interventions to promote healthy nutrition behaviors: a systematic review protocol
Doustmohammadian, A., & Bazhan, M. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14205183
Additional file 3 of Conceptualising changes to tobacco and alcohol policy as affecting a single interlinked system
Gillespie, D., Hatchard, J. L., Squires, H., Gilmore, A., & Brennan, A. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13521010
Self-citation
Additional file 5 of Which government policies to create sustainable food systems have the potential to simultaneously address undernutrition, obesity and environmental sustainability?
Burgaz, C., Van-Dam, I., Garton, K., Swinburn, B. A., Sacks, G., Asiki, G., Claro, R. M., Diouf, A., Bartoletto Martins, A. P., & Vandevijvere, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26754547
Additional file 1 of The effects of nudges on purchases, food choice, and energy intake or content of purchases in real-life food purchasing environments: a systematic review and evidence synthesis
Harbers, M. C., Beulens, J. W. J., Rutters, F., de Boer, F. E., Gillebaart, M., Sluijs, I., & van der Schouw, Y. T. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12971997
Additional file 2 of Which government policies to create sustainable food systems have the potential to simultaneously address undernutrition, obesity and environmental sustainability?
Burgaz, C., Van-Dam, I., Garton, K., Swinburn, B. A., Sacks, G., Asiki, G., Claro, R. M., Diouf, A., Bartoletto Martins, A. P., & Vandevijvere, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26754538
Additional file 3 of Sociodemographic differences in motives for food selection: results from the LoCard cross-sectional survey
Konttinen, H. M., Halmesvaara, O., Fogelholm, M., Saarijärvi, H., Nevalainen, J., & Erkkola, M. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14721956
Additional file 1 of The effectiveness of digital delivery versus group-based face-to-face delivery of the English National Health Service Type 2 Diabetes Prevention Programme: a non-inferiority retrospective cohort comparison study
Marsden, A., Hann, M., Barron, E., McGough, B., Murray, E., Valabhji, J., & Cotterill, S. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.24864114
Additional file 5 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R. W., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608384
Additional file 3 of The effects of nudges on purchases, food choice, and energy intake or content of purchases in real-life food purchasing environments: a systematic review and evidence synthesis
Harbers, M. C., Beulens, J. W. J., Rutters, F., de Boer, F. E., Gillebaart, M., Sluijs, I., & van der Schouw, Y. T. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12972003
Additional file 1 of Is altering the availability of healthier vs. less-healthy options effective across socioeconomic groups? A mega-analysis
Pechey, R., Hollands, G. J., Reynolds, J. P., Jebb, S. A., & Marteau, T. M. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20342453
Additional file 1 of Altering the availability of products within physical micro-environments: a conceptual framework
Pechey, R., Hollands, G. J., Carter, P., & Marteau, T. M. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12580954
Additional file 1 of Sociodemographic differences in motives for food selection: results from the LoCard cross-sectional survey
Konttinen, H. M., Halmesvaara, O., Fogelholm, M., Saarijärvi, H., Nevalainen, J., & Erkkola, M. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14721950
Additional file 6 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608387
Additional file 1 of Effects of increasing the availability of vegetarian options on main meal choices, meal offer satisfaction and liking: a pre-post analysis in a French university cafeteria
Arrazat, L., Cambriels, C., Noan, C. L., Nicklaus, S., & Marty, L. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26749343
Additional file 1 of Women’s perceptions of factors influencing their food shopping choices and how supermarkets can support them to make healthier choices
Dhuria, P., Lawrence, W. T., Crozier, S., Cooper, C. C., Baird, J., & Vogel, C. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14738460
Additional file 1 of Recruiting men from across the socioeconomic spectrum via GP registers and community outreach to a weight management feasibility randomised controlled trial
McDonald, M., Dombrowski, S. U., Skinner, R., Calveley, E., Carroll, P., Elders, A., Gray, C. M., Grindle, M., Harris, F. M., Jones, C., et al. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13059793
Additional file 2 of Effects of increasing the availability of vegetarian options on main meal choices, meal offer satisfaction and liking: a pre-post analysis in a French university cafeteria
Arrazat, L., Cambriels, C., Noan, C. L., Nicklaus, S., & Marty, L. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26749346
Additional file 1 of Social marketing-based interventions to promote healthy nutrition behaviors: a systematic review protocol
Doustmohammadian, A., & Bazhan, M. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14205180
Additional file 4 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608381
Additional file 2 of The effects of nudges on purchases, food choice, and energy intake or content of purchases in real-life food purchasing environments: a systematic review and evidence synthesis
Harbers, M. C., Beulens, J. W. J., Rutters, F., de Boer, F. E., Gillebaart, M., Sluijs, I., & van der Schouw, Y. T. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12972000
Additional file 1 of Conceptualising changes to tobacco and alcohol policy as affecting a single interlinked system
Gillespie, D., Hatchard, J. L., Squires, H., Gilmore, A., & Brennan, A. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13521004
Self-citation
Additional file 2 of Real-world nudging, pricing, and mobile physical activity coaching was insufficient to improve lifestyle behaviours and cardiometabolic health: the Supreme Nudge parallel cluster-randomised controlled supermarket trial
Stuber, J. M., Mackenbach, J. D., de Bruijn, G., Gillebaart, M., Hoenink, J. C., Middel, C. N. H., de Ridder, D. T. D., van der Schouw, Y. T., Smit, E. G., Velema, E., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26675753
Additional file 1 of Real-world nudging, pricing, and mobile physical activity coaching was insufficient to improve lifestyle behaviours and cardiometabolic health: the Supreme Nudge parallel cluster-randomised controlled supermarket trial
Stuber, J. M., Mackenbach, J. D., de Bruijn, G., Gillebaart, M., Hoenink, J. C., Middel, C. N. H., de Ridder, D. T. D., van der Schouw, Y. T., Smit, E. G., Velema, E., et al. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26675750
Additional file 2 of Conceptualising changes to tobacco and alcohol policy as affecting a single interlinked system
Gillespie, D., Hatchard, J. L., Squires, H., Gilmore, A., & Brennan, A. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.13521007
Self-citation
Additional file 8 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R. W., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608393
Additional file 9 of Equity-specific effects of interventions to promote physical activity among middle-aged and older adults: results from applying a novel equity-specific re-analysis strategy
Czwikla, G., Boen, F., Cook, D. G., de Jong, J., Harris, T., Hilz, L. K., Iliffe, S., Lechner, L., Morris, R. W., Muellmann, S., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14608396
Additional file 3 of Which government policies to create sustainable food systems have the potential to simultaneously address undernutrition, obesity and environmental sustainability?
Burgaz, C., Van-Dam, I., Garton, K., Swinburn, B. A., Sacks, G., Asiki, G., Claro, R. M., Diouf, A., Bartoletto Martins, A. P., & Vandevijvere, S. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26754541
The performance of Nutri-Score as a tool in guiding and evaluating nutritional quality of food procurements for high schools in Norway
Amberntsson, A., Heide, E., Paulsen, M. M., Solberg, S. L., Løvhaug, A. L., Andersen, L. F., & Abel, M. H. (2025) · Food & Nutrition Research · doi:10.29219/fnr.v69.12483
ЗДОРОВЫЙ ОБРАЗ ЖИЗНИ КАК ОСНОВА ПОПУЛЯЦИОННОЙ ПРОФИЛАКТИКИ ИНСУЛЬТА: КРИТИЧЕСКИЙ ОБЗОР СОВРЕМЕННЫХ ДОКАЗАТЕЛЬСТВ И СТРАТЕГИЙ ВНЕДРЕНИЯ
кизи, И. Д. Ф. (2025) · ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ НАУКА И ИННОВАЦИОННЫЕ ИДЕИ В МИРЕ · doi:10.64941/9vjvra41
The mediating role of chronic disease in socioeconomic inequalities in frailty: A longitudinal cohort study of older adults in Lausanne, Switzerland
de Mestral, C., Khalatbari‐Soltani, S., Bodenmann, P., Henchoz, Y., & Avendano, M. (2026) · The Journal of Frailty & Aging · doi:10.1016/j.tjfa.2026.100134
“…public health campaigns play an important role, their effectiveness depends on concurrent structural changes to the food and built environments; without such changes, they may inadvertently widen inequalities by disproportionately benefiting socioeconomically advantaged groups [28,40,42].”
Un dispositif de formalisation de processus assistée par ordinateur pour l’évaluation de programme de promotion de la santé : application à PRALIMAP et PRALIMAP-INÉS, essais de prévention du surpoids
Legrand, K. (2017) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/30a6ea3cz5b1bz48e4zbff4zb2c7dbf591b4
Etudes d'interventions nutritionnelles en populations défavorisées réalisées en Seine-Saint-Denis
Buscail, C. (2018) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/65a147dfza9e3z4132z9942z93811b0ba44d
Comportements alimentaires des adultes et des enfants résidant dans les Antilles françaises : déterminants sociaux et évolution
Colombet, Z. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/16d418d0z3b6az4290zafdezac6fc82ec9c0
Nutritional quality and environmental impact of university students’ food consumption : observational and interventional approaches in a university cafeteria in Dijon, France
Arrazat, L. (2024) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/9a818ef9z7599z47eez888dz694a81821736
Decision analysis for the long-term effectiveness of a community-based intervention to prevent obesity: an EUREGIO project
Santamaria, J., Jahn, B., Sroczynski, G., Tuohy, K. M., Papon, V., Siebert, U., & Mühlberger, N. (2026) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-026-02744-w

Authors: McGill, R., Anwar, E., Orton, L., Bromley, H., Lloyd-Williams, F., O’Flaherty, M., Taylor-Robinson, D., Guzman-Castillo, M., Gillespie, D., Moreira, P., Allen, K., Hyseni, L., Calder, N., Petticrew, M., White, M., Whitehead, M., & Capewell, S.
Affiliations: University of Liverpool (GB)
London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (GB)
University of Cambridge (GB)
Corresponding author: McGill, Rory
ORCID: Orton, Lois
Taylor-Robinson, David
Guzman-Castillo, Maria
Gillespie, Duncan
Allen, Kirk
Hyseni, Lirije
Petticrew, Mark
White, Martin
Whitehead, Margaret
Capewell, Simon
Venue: BMC Public Health
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2015-05-02
Volume: 15
Issue: 1
Pages: 457-457
ISSN: 1471-2458 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/s12889-015-1781-7
PMC: PMC4423493
OpenAlex: W4239413439
Cited by: 407
References: 83
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 63 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 5
FWCI: 4.07
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: correction (2015-09-15)
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (unspecified)
Locations: BMC Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Apollo
Funders: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Wellcome Trust (087636/Z/08/Z)
National Institute for Health and Care Research
University of Exeter
University of Sheffield
National Institutes of Health
Medical Research Council (MR/K023187/1)
Economic and Social Research Council (ES/G007462/1, ES/G007470/1)
School for Public Health Research
Topics: Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
Keywords: healthy eating interventions, socioeconomic disparities, socioeconomic position, nutrition counseling, non-communicable disease prevention, dietary intake, fruit and vegetable intake, health disparities
MeSH terms: Commerce, Diet, Feeding Behavior, Health Education, Health Promotion, Humans, Socioeconomic Factors, Vegetables, Marketing

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Are interventions to promote healthy eating equally effective for all? Systematic review of socioeconomic inequalities in impact

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