Global population genetic structure and demographic trajectories of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens

Kaya, Cengiz; Generalovic, Tomas N.; Ståhls, Gunilla; Hauser, Martin; Samayoa, Ana C.; Nunes-Silva, Carlos G.; Roxburgh, Heather; Wohlfahrt, Jens; Ewusie, Ebenezer A.; Kenis, Marc; Hanboonsong, Yupa; Orozco, Jesus; Carrejo, Nancy; Nakamura, Satoshi; Gasco, Laura; Rojo, Santos; Tanga, Chrysantus M.; Meier, Rudolf; Rhode, Clint; Picard, Christine J.; Jiggins, Chris D.; Leiber, Florian; Tomberlin, Jeffery K.; Hasselmann, Martin; Blanckenhorn, Wolf U.; Kapun, Martin; Sandrock, Christoph

doi:10.1186/s12915-021-01029-w

Cited by 149Genetic diversity and population structureInsect Utilization and EffectsDiptera species taxonomy and behavior

Global population genetic structure and demographic trajectories of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens

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Kaya, Cengiz, Generalovic, Tomas N., Ståhls, Gunilla, Hauser, Martin, Samayoa, Ana C., Nunes-Silva, Carlos G., Roxburgh, Heather, Wohlfahrt, Jens +19 more·2021·BMC Biology

DOI 10.1186/s12915-021-01029-wPMC PMC8101212

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Abstract

Background: The black soldier fly ( Hermetia illucens ) is the most promising insect candidate for nutrient-recycling through bioconversion of organic waste into biomass, thereby improving sustainability of protein supplies for animal feed and facilitating transition to a circular economy. Contrary to conventional livestock, genetic resources of farmed insects remain poorly characterised. We present the first comprehensive population genetic characterisation of H. illucens . Based on 15 novel microsatellite markers, we genotyped and analysed 2862 individuals from 150 wild and captive populations originating from 57 countries on seven subcontinents. Results: We identified 16 well-distinguished genetic clusters indicating substantial global population structure. The data revealed genetic hotspots in central South America and successive northwards range expansions within the indigenous ranges of the Americas. Colonisations and naturalisations of largely unique genetic profiles occurred on all non-native continents, either preceded by demographically independent founder events from various single sources or involving admixture scenarios. A decisive primarily admixed Polynesian bridgehead population serially colonised the entire Australasian region and its secondarily admixed descendants successively mediated invasions into Africa and Europe. Conversely, captive populations from several continents traced back to a single North American origin and exhibit considerably reduced genetic diversity, although some farmed strains carry distinct genetic signatures. We highlight genetic footprints characteristic of progressing domestication due to increasing socio-economic importance of H. illucens , and ongoing introgression between domesticated strains globally traded for large-scale farming and wild populations in some regions. Conclusions: We document the dynamic population genetic history of a cosmopolitan dipteran of South American origin shaped by striking geographic patterns. These reflect both ancient dispersal routes, and stochastic and heterogeneous anthropogenic introductions during the last century leading to pronounced diversification of worldwide structure of H. illucens . Upon the recent advent of its agronomic commercialisation, however, current human-mediated translocations of the black soldier fly largely involve genetically highly uniform domesticated strains, which meanwhile threaten the genetic integrity of differentiated unique local resources through introgression. Our in-depth reconstruction of the contemporary and historical demographic trajectories of H. illucens emphasises benchmarking potential for applied future research on this emerging model of the prospering insect-livestock sector.

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Industrial BSF strains often harbour a narrowed gene pool due to shared provenance, founding events, and repeated genetic bottlenecks.
“industrial strains often harbour a narrowed gene pool due to breeding stocks having shared provenance, founding events from colony establishments and repeated genetic bottlenecks (Ståhls et al. 2020; Sandrock et al. 2021; Kaya et al. 2021).”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Kaya et al. 2021
The Discussion section ‘Demography and genetic signatures of domesticated BSF’ reports low allelic diversity and a pronounced founder effect in North American captive populations, with related strains sharing genetic footprints worldwide. It does not support repeated bottlenecks as a general explanation: the same section reports an absence of severe genetic bottlenecks across the domesticated BSF farms investigated. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Globally, 66% of allelic diversity resides within Neotropics BSF strains.
“Globally, 66% of allelic diversity resides within Neotropics strains”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Kaya et al. 2021
The Results section (page unavailable) reports that South American BSF populations, considering both wild and captive provenances, contained 65% of the overall allelic variation. This supports the claim’s general point about high regional diversity, but the paper gives 65%, not 66%, and specifies South American populations rather than Neotropical strains as a whole. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
High genetic diversity is present among global BSF strains.
“High genetic diversity is present among global BSF strains (Ståhls et al. 2020; Sandrock et al. 2021; Kaya et al. 2021; Generalovic et al. 2023)”
From Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology (2026) · cites this paper as Kaya et al. 2021

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Siddiqui, S. A., van Greunen, L., Zeiri, A., Yudhistira, B., Ahmad, A., & Mabelebele, M. (2024) · Process Safety and Environmental Protection · doi:10.1016/j.psep.2024.06.108 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Retracted
Near Infrared Spectroscopy as a Traceability Tool to Monitor Black Soldier Fly Larvae (Hermetia illucens) Intended as Animal Feed
Alagappan, S., Hoffman, L. C., Mantilla, S. M. O., Mikkelsen, D., James, P., Yarger, O., & Cozzolino, D. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12168168 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Dynamic modelling of feed assimilation, growth, lipid accumulation, and CO2 production in black soldier fly larvae
Eriksen, N. T. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0276605 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The unpaved road towards efficient selective breeding in insects for food and feed—A review
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A decade of advances in black soldier fly research: from genetics to sustainability
Athanassiou, C. G., Coudron, C. L., Deruytter, D., Rumbos, C. I., Gasco, L., Gai, F., Sandrock, C., Smet, J. D., Tettamanti, G., Francis, A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-00001122 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
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Assessing Fungal Diversity and Abundance in the Black Soldier Fly and its Environment
Vitenberg, T., & Opatovsky, I. (2022) · Journal of Insect Science · doi:10.1093/jisesa/ieac066 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Drivers of genomic diversity and phenotypic development in early phases of domestication in Hermetia illucens
Hull, K. L., Greenwood, M. P., Lloyd, M., Brink‐Hull, M., der Merwe, A. E. B., & Rhode, C. (2024) · Insect Molecular Biology · doi:10.1111/imb.12940 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
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Nutrients limit production of insects for food and feed: an emphasis on nutritionally essential amino acids
Tomberlin, J. K., Miranda, C. D., Flint, C. A., Harris, E., & Wu, G. (2023) · Animal Frontiers · doi:10.1093/af/vfad032 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Near‐infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) for monitoring the nutritional composition of black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) and frass
Alagappan, S., Hoffman, L. C., Mikkelsen, D., Mantilla, S. M. O., James, P., Yarger, O., & Cozzolino, D. (2023) · Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture · doi:10.1002/jsfa.13044 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Biowaste biorefineries in South Africa: Current status, opportunities, and research and development needs
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A bio-economic model for estimating economic values of important production traits in the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)
Zaalberg, R. M., Nielsen, H. M., Noer, N. K., Schou, T. M., Jensen, K., Thormose, S. F., Kargo, M., & Slagboom, M. (2024) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-00001126 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Rapid Evolutionary Adaptation to Diet Composition in the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens)
Gligorescu, A., Chen, L., Jensen, K., Moghadam, N. N., Kristensen, T. N., & Sørensen, J. G. (2023) · Insects · doi:10.3390/insects14100821 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Inbreeding and Outbreeding Depression in Wild and Captive Insect Populations
Leung, K., Beukeboom, L. W., & Zwaan, B. J. (2025) · Annual Review of Entomology · doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-022924-020221 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Cryptic Diversity and Impacts of Domestication in the Black Soldier Fly ( Hermetia illucens ) Genome
Generalovic, T. N., Sandrock, C., Roberts, B. J., Meier, J. I., Hauser, M., Warren, I. A., Pipan, M., Durbin, R. M., & Jiggins, C. D. (2026) · Genome Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/gbe/evag097 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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Genetic diversity and organic waste degrading capacity of Hermetia illucens from the evergreen forest of the Equatorial Choco lowland
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Multitrait genetic parameter estimates in a Tenebrio molitor reference population: high potential for breeding gains
Sellem, E., Paul, K., Donkpegan, A. S. L., Li, Q., Masseron, A., Chauveau, A., Gagnepain-Germain, F., & Lefebvre, T. (2024) · animal · doi:10.1016/j.animal.2024.101197 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.): A potential small mighty giant in the field of cosmeceuticals
Lai‐Foenander, A. S., Kuppusamy, G., Manogoran, J., Xu, T., Chen, Y., Tang, S. Y., Ser, H., Yow, Y., Goh, K. W., Ming, L. C., et al. (2024) · Health Science Reports · doi:10.1002/hsr2.2120 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Mating and oviposition of a breeding strain of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): polygynandry and multiple egg-laying
Muraro, T., Lalanne, L., Pelozuelo, L., & Calas-List, D. (2024) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-20220175 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Whole-genome sequencing of two captive black soldier fly populations: Implications for commercial production
Cai, Z., Hansen, L. S., Laursen, S. F., Nielsen, H. M., Bahrndorff, S., Tomberlin, J. K., Kristensen, T. N., Sørensen, J. G., & Sahana, G. (2024) · Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.ygeno.2024.110891 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Genetic analyses reveal regional structure and demographic expansion of the predominant tea pest Empoasca onukii (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) in China
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Impacts of development and adult sex on brain cell numbers in the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens L. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)
Barrett, M., Godfrey, R. K., Sterner, E. J., & Waddell, E. A. (2022) · Arthropod Structure & Development · doi:10.1016/j.asd.2022.101174 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Applicability of Black Soldier Fly and Yellow Mealworm in municipal food waste bioconversion: Assessment of efficiency, nutritional proficiency, and safety
Shojaaddini, M. (2024) · Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomology · doi:10.1016/j.aspen.2024.102306 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Examining the potential of plastic-fed black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) as “bioincubators” of plastic-degrading bacteria
Dragone, N. B., van Hamelsveld, S., Nazmi, A. R., Stott, M. B., Hatley, G. A., Moloney, K., Bohm, K., Ginés, M. J. G., & Weaver, L. (2025) · Journal of Applied Microbiology · doi:10.1093/jambio/lxaf085 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Uncovering nutrients and energy related gene functions of black soldier fly Hermetia illucens strain KUP
Sukmak, R., Suttinun, C., Kovitvadhi, U., Kovitvadhi, A., & Vongsangnak, W. (2023) · Gene · doi:10.1016/j.gene.2023.148045 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Proteomic and transcriptomic analysis of cold- and heat-tolerant black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae
Feng, X., Memon, F. U., Ma, C., Zhu, J., Huang, Z., Tettamanti, G., Li, K., Peng, G., Hu, W., & Tian, L. (2024) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-00001215 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
BugBook: Black soldier fly as a model to assess behaviour of insects mass produced as food and feed
Tomberlin, J. K., Klammsteiner, T., Lemke, N. B., Yadav, P., & Sandrock, C. (2025) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-bja10225 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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Lactation in the human
Neville, M. C. (2023) · Animal Frontiers · doi:10.1093/af/vfad021 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Impact of age, sex, and size on the thermal tolerance of the adult black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)
Li, C., Addeo, N. F., Rusch, T. W., Dickerson, A. J., Tarone, A. M., Hu, W., & Tomberlin, J. K. (2021) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.3920/jiff2021.0092 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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Variation in strain performance and estimates of heritability of body size indicate considerable potential for genetic improvement of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)
Generalovic, T. N., Sandrock, C., Leonard, S., Schuldiner‐Harpaz, T., Pipan, M., Welch, J. J., & Jiggins, C. D. (2025) · Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata · doi:10.1111/eea.13565 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
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Near Infrared Spectroscopy for Prediction of Yeast and Mould Counts in Black Soldier Fly Larvae, Feed and Frass: A Proof of Concept
Alagappan, S., Dong, A., Mikkelsen, D., Hoffman, L. C., Mantilla, S. M. O., James, P., Yarger, O., & Cozzolino, D. (2023) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s23156946 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
High-throughput screening reveals high diversity and widespread distribution of viruses in black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens)
Pienaar, R. D., Herrero, S., de Araujo, A. C., Krupa, F., Abd‐Alla, A. M. M., & Herniou, E. A. (2025) · Journal of Invertebrate Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.jip.2025.108322 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
How could climate change influence the distribution of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Linnaeus) (Diptera, Stratiomyidae)?
Pazmiño‐Palomino, A., Reyes-Puig, C. P., & Hierro, A. G. D. (2022) · Biodiversity Data Journal · doi:10.3897/bdj.10.e90146 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
A Multidisciplinary Approach for the Development of a Supply Chain in Biomass Conversion of Agrifood Waste Mediated by Larvae of Hermetia illucens L.: From Rearing to By-Product Exploitation
Santis, E. D., de Iudicibus, A., Lecce, F., Mei, M. D., Petrazzuolo, F., Giudice, A. D., Carnevale, M., Gallucci, F., Beni, C., Assirelli, A., et al. (2024) · Agriculture · doi:10.3390/agriculture14071010 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Genetic structure of black soldier flies in northern Iran
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Sex-Specific Perching: Monitoring of Artificial Plants Reveals Dynamic Female-Biased Perching Behavior in the Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)
Lemke, N. B., Rollison, L. N., & Tomberlin, J. K. (2024) · Insects · doi:10.3390/insects15100770 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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Closing the loop with pretreatment and black soldier fly technology for recycling lignocellulose-rich organic by-products: A progressive review
Rehman, K. U., Schwennen, C., Visscher, C., Plötz, M., Grabowski, N. T., Sultana, M. U. C., Wiesotzki, K., Hollah, C., Aganovic, K., & Heinz, V. (2024) · Carbohydrate Polymer Technologies and Applications · doi:10.1016/j.carpta.2024.100630 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Broad acceptance of sustainable insect-based shrimp feeds requires reproducible and comparable research
Barth, A., Björn Stelbrink, A., Klüber, P., Schubert, P., Bendag, S., & Wilke, T. (2025) · Aquaculture International · doi:10.1007/s10499-024-01769-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Black soldier fly hermetia illucens applications in circular economy and agricultural sustainability: a review
Wilson, D. D., Ray, R. L., & Lohakare, J. (2025) · Discover Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s43621-025-02250-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Large Flies Overlooked: the Genus Hermetia Latreille, 1804 (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) in the Neotropics, with 11 Synonyms and a New Species to Brazil
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From the heart of the animal feed industry: a Southeast Asian perspective on insects for feed in Asia
Deguerry, A., Preteseille, N., Kovitvadhi, A., Allan, D. J., Nampanya, S., & Newman, S. (2023) · Animal Frontiers · doi:10.1093/af/vfad036 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Genetic differentiation in domesticated black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) populations
Silvaraju, S., Loh, R. K., Kittelmann, S., & Puniamoorthy, N. (2025) · BMC Biology · doi:10.1186/s12915-025-02480-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
BugBook: Considerations for designing and performing insect larvae production experiments
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Temperature‐Controlled Mechanical Pressing of Black Soldier Fly Larvae ( BSFL ): Yields and Qualities of Oil and Protein Meal
Chew, Z. L., Kua, Y. L., Mah, J. K., Ra, N., Lee, T. Z. E., & Chee, S. Y. K. (2025) · Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society · doi:10.1002/aocs.70007 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Truncated Higiant enhances the bioconversion ability of Hermetia illucens
Wang, S., Kou, Z., Jiang, Y., Tomberlin, J. K., Zhang, W., Wang, S., & Huang, Y. (2025) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-025-08571-1 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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Exploring the potential of crossbreeding to enhance black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) production
Meyermans, R., Broeckx, L., Mondelaers, J., Gorssen, W., Frooninckx, L., Janssens, S., Van Miert, S., & Buys, N. (2025) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-00001391 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
BugBook: Basic information and good practices on how to maintain stock populations for Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens for research
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Environmental conditions influencing growth and development of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens (L.)) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)
Cammack, J. A., & Tomberlin, J. K. (2023) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-20230026 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Age and calorific restriction impact immature black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) thermal tolerance and preference
Li, C., Addeo, N. F., Rusch, T. W., Chappell, T. M., Tarone, A. M., & Tomberlin, J. K. (2024) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-00001026 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Food for thought: Valuable bioproduction pathways emerge in a circular food production model
Doughty, K. H., Middleton, J. A., Salini, M., Kragt, M. E., Partridge, J. C., Hemmi, J. M., & Martin, B. (2024) · Cleaner and Circular Bioeconomy · doi:10.1016/j.clcb.2024.100102 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Controlled and polygynous mating in the black soldier fly: advancing breeding programs utilizing quantitative genetic designs
Jensen, K., Thormose, S. F., Noer, N. K., Schou, T. M., Kargo, M., Gligorescu, A., Nørgaard, J. V., Hansen, L. S., Zaalberg, R. M., Nielsen, H. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-bja10205 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Genetic diversity and population structure of Leptosphaeria maculans isolates in Western Canada
Chen, Q., Peng, G., Kutcher, R., & Yu, F. (2021) · Journal of genetics and genomics/Journal of Genetics and Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.jgg.2021.06.019 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Assessing the economic viability and factors affecting farmer adoption of black soldier fly larvae as broiler feed in Bangladesh: a comparative analysis
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Have the environmental benefits of insect farming been overstated? A critical review
Biteau, C., Bry‐Chevalier, T., Crummett, D., Loewy, K. J., Ryba, R., & Jules, M. S. (2025) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.70076 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Larval and pupal development in Hermetia illucens: developmental checkpoints and starvation-induced dormancy
Ohhara, Y., Maeno, A., & Yamakawa‐Kobayashi, K. (2026) · Arthropod Structure & Development · doi:10.1016/j.asd.2026.101535 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Composting by Black Soldier Fly
Aziz, H. B. A., Lee, W. S., Hasan, H. A., Hassan, H. M., Wang, L. K., Wang, M.-H. S., & Hung, Y. (2022) · Handbook of environmental engineering · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96989-9_6 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Genetic diversity of black soldier flies in Vietnam based on DNA COI sequence
Nguyen, N. T., TRAN, T. B. N., & Tran, N. H. (2024) · Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity · doi:10.13057/biodiv/d241235 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The genomic landscape of Hermetia illucens: exploring the potential of the black soldier fly through molecular insights
Muchina, P., Kinyua, J. D. M., Khamis, F. M., Tanga, C. M., Gebreyesus, G., Cai, Z., & Sahana, G. (2025) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-bja10200 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Investigating the effect of larval instar, post-harvest treatments, and substrate on the nutritional profile of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens)
Alagappan, S., Hong, H. T., Mikkelsen, D., Mantilla, S. M. O., James, P., Yarger, O., Hoffman, L. C., & Cozzolino, D. (2025) · Animal Production Science · doi:10.1071/an24108 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Transgenerational dynamics of gut microbiota in black soldier fly larvae ( Hermetia illucens ) reared on a novel substrate
Silvaraju, S., Han, A. L. C., Jen, T. Y., Kittelmann, S., & Puniamoorthy, N. (2026) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.01903-25 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Geographic Variation in Genomic Signals of Admixture Between Two Closely Related European Sepsid Fly Species
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BugBook: Data analysis methods in studies of insects for food and feed
Smetana, S. M., Coudron, C. L., Deruytter, D., Francis, A., Pascual, J. J., Klammsteiner, T., Lemke, N. B., Sandrock, C., & Zanoli, R. (2025) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-bja10209 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Farmed insects for sustainable food systems
Parodi, A. (2022) · doi:10.18174/570891 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Beyond the Black Box: Reproductive Strategies of the Black Soldier Fly as a Model for Bridging Evolutionary Biology and Applied Entomology
Lemke, N. B., & Puniamoorthy, N. (2026) · Evolutionary Applications · doi:10.1111/eva.70249 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Yet, BSF exist worldwide (Kaya et al. 2021), in presumably a wide range of ecological contexts.”
Genomic Insights and Bioconversion Potential in the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens): Current Advances and Future Directions
Oliveira, J., Guilgur, L. G., Assunção, R., Murta, D., & Trindade, A. (2026) · Insects · doi:10.3390/insects17010070 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effects of Black Soldier Fly Larvae as Replacement of Soybean Meal on the Performance, Meat Quality, and Health Status in Broilers
Abdel‐Wareth, A. A. A., Salahuddin, M., Goswami, P. K., Gray, C. D., Aviña, A. M. W., Osei-Akoto, A., Carr, T., Argueta, A., Kinman, L. A. A., & Lohakare, J. (2026) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci13030282 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Environmental Stress Drives Plasticity in Sexual Bimaturism in the Black Soldier Fly ( Hermetia illucens Linnaeus, 1758)
Arce‐Valdés, L. R., Mahdjoub, H., Vilanova, J., López-Manzano, C., & Khelifa, R. (2026) · Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata · doi:10.1111/eea.70113 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effect of Black Soldier Fly Larvae and Food Substrates on Weed Seed Emergence
Meyers, S. L., Arana, J., Cardona-Giraldo, L. A., Ingwell, L. L., Rodríguez, L., & Vargas, N. (2024) · HortTechnology · doi:10.21273/horttech05273-23 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Economía circular y sus prácticas en la región andina
Encalada, M. L., Vaca, A. M. C., & Cisneros, J. T. C. (2024) · Revista Venezolana de Gerencia · doi:10.52080/rvgluz.29.107.5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Effect of black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae oil feed inclusion on growth performance and fecal microbiome development in post-weaning pigs
Buffoni, M., Viveen, M. C., Visser, J. A. G. D., Mughini‐Gras, L., Willems, R. J. L., Schürch, A. C., & Kers, J. G. (2025) · Livestock Science · doi:10.1016/j.livsci.2025.105819 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A chemically defined oviposition attractant and repellent of black soldier flies (Hermetia illucens)
Thomas, N. K., Karpati, Z., Schmitt, T., & Riabinina, O. (2025) · Journal of Insects as Food and Feed · doi:10.1163/23524588-bja10312 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
BSFbase: The comprehensive genomic resource for a natural recycler, the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.)
Zhi, D., Li, G., Zhang, K., Kou, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhan, S., Huang, Y., & Fang, G. (2023) · Insect Science · doi:10.1111/1744-7917.13239 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Genome Sequence Data and Integrative RNA-Seq Data of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) (A Japanese Strain)
Takeda, K., Uehara, T., Jouraku, A., Liu, C.-M., Kobayashi, T., Shimoda, M., & Yokoi, K. (2025) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-025-06410-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larvae reduce cyathostomin (Nematoda: Strongylidae) eggs but develop poorly on horse manure
Mann, D. N., Hobert, K. T., Biddle, A. S., & Crossley, M. S. (2024) · Journal of Economic Entomology · doi:10.1093/jee/toae183 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Bridging lab and industry: The impact of a bio‐conversion unit on black soldier fly larvae production and microbiome dynamics
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Screening optimum reference genes for quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction analysis in black soldier fly Hermetia illucens under different conditions
Ma, Q., Gan, Z., Ye, X., Zhang, R., Han, T., Du, J., & Zhu, F. (2025) · Insect Science · doi:10.1111/1744-7917.70067 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Parentage assignment in black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) using genotyping-by-sequencing
Dufresne, G., Bolduc, C., Warburton, C., Vandenberg, G. W., Deschamps, M., & Alnahhas, N. (2025) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2025.1541812 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Shortening the Black Soldier Fly Life Cycle by Temperature‐Driven Genetic Selection to Enhance Alternative Protein Production
García‐Castillo, P., Peralta, C., Hernández‐Pelegrín, L., & Herrero, S. (2025) · eFood · doi:10.1002/efd2.70110 · Cited by 1 · see citing works

Deciphering the evolutionary history of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, on a global scale
Sandrock, C., Kaya, C., Kapun, M., Wohlfahrt, J., & Blanckenhorn, W. U. (2021) · Organic Eprints (International Centre for Research in Organic Food Systems, and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Global population genetic patterns and demographic history of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens)
Sandrock, C. (2023) · Organic Eprints (International Centre for Research in Organic Food Systems, and Research Institute of Organic Agriculture)
Self-citation
Additional file 2 of Global population genetic structure and demographic trajectories of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens
Kaya, C., Generalovic, T. N., Ståhls, G., Hauser, M., Samayoa, A. C., Nunes-Silva, C. G., Roxburgh, H., Wohlfahrt, J., Ewusie, E. A., Kenis, M., et al. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14545002
Self-citation
Population genomics and domestication of the Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens L.)
Generalovic, T. N. (2023) · Apollo (University of Cambridge) · doi:10.17863/cam.103274 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Cryptic Diversity and Impacts of Domestication in the Black Soldier Fly ( Hermetia illucens ) Genome
Generalovic, T. N., Sandrock, C., Roberts, B. J., Meier, J. I., Hauser, M., Warren, I. A., Pipan, M., Durbin, R. M., & Jiggins, C. D. (2026) · Genome Biology and Evolution · doi:10.1093/gbe/evag097 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citation

Authors: Kaya, C., Generalovic, T. N., Ståhls, G., Hauser, M., Samayoa, A. C., Nunes-Silva, C. G., Roxburgh, H., Wohlfahrt, J., Ewusie, E. A., Kenis, M., Hanboonsong, Y., Orozco, J., Carrejo, N., Nakamura, S., Gasco, L., Rojo, S., Tanga, C. M., Meier, R., Rhode, C., Picard, C. J., Jiggins, C. D., Leiber, F., Tomberlin, J. K., Hasselmann, M., Blanckenhorn, W. U., Kapun, M., & Sandrock, C.
Affiliations: University of Zurich (CH)
University of Cambridge (GB)
Finnish Museum of Natural History (FI)
California Department of Food and Agriculture (US)
National Chung Hsing University (TW)
Universidade Federal do Amazonas (BR)
University of Stirling (GB)
Forschungsinstitut für Biologischen Landbau (CH)
Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GH)
CABI Switzerland (CH)
Khon Kaen University (TH)
Universidad del Valle (CO)
Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences (JP)
University of Turin (IT)
University of Alicante (ES)
International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (KE)
National University of Singapore (SG)
Stellenbosch University (ZA)
Indiana University Indianapolis (US)
Texas A&M University (US)
University of Hohenheim (DE)
Corresponding author: Sandrock, Christoph
ORCID: Generalovic, Tomas N.
Ståhls, Gunilla
Hauser, Martin
Nunes-Silva, Carlos G.
Roxburgh, Heather
Ewusie, Ebenezer A.
Kenis, Marc
Hanboonsong, Yupa
Carrejo, Nancy
Nakamura, Satoshi
Gasco, Laura
Rojo, Santos
Tanga, Chrysantus M.
Meier, Rudolf
Rhode, Clint
Picard, Christine J.
Jiggins, Chris D.
Leiber, Florian
Tomberlin, Jeffery K.
Hasselmann, Martin
Blanckenhorn, Wolf U.
Kapun, Martin
Sandrock, Christoph
Venue: BMC Biology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2021-05-05
Volume: 19
Issue: 1
Pages: 94-94
ISSN: 1741-7007 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01029-w
PMC: PMC8101212
OpenAlex: W3157995364
Cited by: 149
References: 135
Citations by year: 2026: 29 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 10
FWCI: 12.16
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: BMC Biology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
IUScholarWorks (Indiana University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
Institutional Research Information System University of Turin (University of Turin) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
National University of Singapore (submittedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Stirling Online Research Repository (University of Stirling) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
RUA, Repositorio Institucional de la Universidad de Alicante (Universidad de Alicante) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Apollo
Apollo (cc-by)
Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
Funders: Bundesamt für Landwirtschaft (627000824)
Swiss National Science Foundation (IZ01Z0_147278, 400540_152154)
Austrian Science Foundation (FWF P32275)
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (108866-001)
National Research Foundation, South Africa (CSRP170506229933)
Topics: Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect Utilization and Effects
Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Diptera species taxonomy and behavior
Keywords: Hermetia illucens, population structure, demographic history, microsatellite markers, domestication, introgression, invasive species, range expansion, founder events, genetic diversity, insect farming, organic waste bioconversion, captive populations
MeSH terms: Animals, Animal Feed, Demography, Diptera, Genetics, Population, Humans, Larva

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Global population genetic structure and demographic trajectories of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens

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