Cited by 1,501Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skillsDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and Testing

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Executive Functioning as a Predictor of Children's Mathematics Ability: Inhibition, Switching, and Working Memory

Bull, Rebecca, Scerif, Gaia·2001·Developmental Neuropsychology

DOI 10.1207/s15326942dn1903_3

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Abstract

Children's mathematical skills were considered in relation to executive functions. Using multiple measures--including the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), dual-task performance, Stroop task, and counting span-it was found that mathematical ability was significantly correlated with all measures of executive functioning, with the exception of dual-task performance. Furthermore, regression analyses revealed that each executive function measure predicted unique variance in mathematics ability. These results are discussed in terms of a central executive with diverse functions (Shallice & Burgess, 1996) and with recent evidence from Miyake, et al. (2000) showing the unity and diversity among executive functions. It is proposed that the particular difficulties for children of lower mathematical ability are lack of inhibition and poor working memory, which result in problems with switching and evaluation of new strategies for dealing with a particular task. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed, along with suggestions for task changes and longitudinal studies that would clarify theoretical and developmental issues related to executive functioning.

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Mohapatra, B., & Laures-Gore, J. S. (2021) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2021_ajslp-20-00305 · Cited by 7
Early bilingual immersion school program and cognitive development in French-speaking children: Effect of the second language learned (English vs. Dutch) and exposition duration (2 vs. 5 years)
Gillet, S., Barbu, C., & Poncelet, M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258458 · Cited by 6
The Influences of a Knowledge Representation Tool on Searchers with Varying Cognitive Abilities
Choi, B., Arguello, J., Capra, R., & Ward, A. R. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Information Systems · doi:10.1145/3527661 · Cited by 6
“Additionally, plenty of research has found an association between SW ability and arithmetic problem-solving [10, 14, 52, 60, 76].”
Background
Dynamic Assessment of Self-Regulation and Planning Behavior
Tzuriel, D., Hanuka-Levy, D., & Kashy‐Rosenbaum, G. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.885170 · Cited by 7
Assessment of attention and working memory among young adults using computer games
Basu, S., Saha, S., Das, S., Guha, R., Mukherjee, J., & Mahadevappa, M. (2022) · Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing · doi:10.1007/s12652-022-04494-5 · Cited by 6
Technique for Diagnosing Cognitive Flexibility in Preschoolers: Comparison of Blank and Digital Forms
Veraksa, N. E., Сергеевна, А. М., Сергеевна, Т. К., & Klimenko, V. A. (2023) · Вестник Российского университета дружбы народов. Серия: Психология и педагогика · doi:10.22363/2313-1683-2023-20-1-105-125 · Cited by 8
Now you see it, now you don’t - Cognitive skills and their contributions to mathematics across early development
Coolen, I. E. J. I., Omont, S., & Knops, A. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.309 · Cited by 12
“Indeed, children are slowly introduced to strategies to solve mathematics problems in a quicker way (e.g., memorising addition tables rather than counting up and down from a number), urging children to inhibit less adapted strategies (Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
Background
Associations between Executive Functions and Sensorimotor Performance in Children at Risk for Learning Disabilities
Nagy-Tószegi, C., Zsido, A. N., & Lábadi, B. (2023) · Occupational Therapy International · doi:10.1155/2023/6676477 · Cited by 9
“Preschool children who performed poorly in numeracy or mathematics also showed lower scores in all three EF domains [20].”
The effect of emotional motivation on strategy flexibility: the moderating role of task load
Wang, Y., Zhu, C., Zuo, D., Liu, J., & Liu, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1241131 · Cited by 8
“Research has demonstrated that cognitive flexibility is associated with academic achievement, with poorer cognitive flexibility being linked to poorer academic performance (Bull and Scerif, 2001).”
Background
Associations between inhibition and precursors of literacy and mathematics in kindergarten children
Michel, E., Lang, J., & Boesche, F. (2024) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.4165 · Cited by 7
The Interconnection of Metacognition and Executive Functions in Childhood: A Cultural-Historical Perspective
Veraksa, А., & Veraksa, N. E. (2023) · New Ideas in Child and Educational Psychology · doi:10.11621/nicep.2023.0503 · Cited by 9
The meta-linguistic and domain-specific executive function profile of children with decoding or comprehension difficulties
Zhang, W., Peng, P., Peng, C., Zhang, L., & Wang, Y. (2024) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-024-10544-5 · Cited by 6
“Inhibition was measured using the numerical Stroop task (Bull & Scerif, 2001 ), the Stroop color-word task (Booth et al., 2010 ), and the spatial Stroop task (Blumenfeld & Mar - ian, 2011 ).”
Students’ voices—the dynamic interactions between learning preferences, gender, learning disabilities, and achievements in science studies
Zion, O. A. M., Zion, M., & Spektor‐Levy, O. (2024) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-024-09666-8 · Cited by 14
“Students with learning disabilities often have difficulty representing information using one or more modalities (Andersson & Lyxell, 2007; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Geary et al., 2007; Mabbott & Bisanz, 2008; Passolunghi & Siegel, 2004).”
The trajectory of mathematics skills and working memory thresholds in girls with fragile X syndrome
Murphy, M. M., & Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2009) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.09.004 · Cited by 6
“The roles of executive functions and working memory in mathematical performance have received both theoretical and empirical support (Bull, Johnston, & Roy, 1999; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Mazzocco & Kover, 2007).”
Background
Learning to ignore: The development of time-based visual attention in children.
Zupan, Z., Blagrove, E., & Watson, D. G. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000582 · Cited by 6
“…the age range selected in our study is marked by the transition to cognitive structures that support reasoning and logical operations (Piaget, 1964), and the pertinence of EFs for learning during the early school years (e.g., Altemeier, Jones, Abbott, & Berninger, 2006; Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
Background
The Non-Tested Years: Policy’s Impact on Early Childhood Curriculum
Gallo-Fox, J., & Cuccuini-Harmon, C. M. (2018) · The Educational Forum · doi:10.1080/00131725.2018.1461524 · Cited by 9
“…in the CCSS. Curriculum narrowing has been found to have a negative impact on learning (Miller & Almon, 2009; NAEYC, 2012), and leads to limited opportunities to develop critical areas including social emotional and executive functioning (Blair, 2002; Blair & Razza, 2007; Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
Background
Executive Functions in the Classroom
Blair, C., & Steinhard, N. (2013) · Cited by 6
How Brain Research Can Contribute to the Evaluation of Mathematical Giftedness
Leikin, M., Waisman, I., & Лейкин, Р. (2013) · Psychological test and assessment modeling · Cited by 6
Executive functions and approaches to learning: Relationships to school readiness in Head Start preschoolers
Vitiello, V. E., & Greenfield, D. B. (2010) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e584752012-193 · Cited by 6
“…have shown that working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility are related to math and literacy achievement in elementary-aged children (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Hooper, Swartz, Wakely, de Kruif, & Montgomery, 2002; Lee, Ng, Ng, & Lim, 2004; Mazzocco & Koyer, 2004; St. Claire-Thompson &…”
Questions that Fuel the Mind: Exploring the Associations between Teacher-Child Higher-Level Interaction and Preschoolers’ Development of Executive Functions
Kook, J. F. (2022) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2022.2098767 · Cited by 7
“…varying domains including language and literacy (C. Blair & Razza, 2007; Filipe et al., 2020; Skibbe et al., 2019), math (C. Blair & Razza, 2007; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Cragg & Gilmore, 2014), science (Nayfeld, Fuccillo, & Greenfield, 2013), as well as social-emotional competencies (Riggs et al.,…”
Background
The relationship between executive functions and early numerical skills: A study on three- and four-year-old preschoolers
Morosini, G., Cuder, A., Vita, C. D., Passolunghi, M. C., & Pellizzoni, S. (2025) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2025.101568 · Cited by 5
Assessing executive functions in free-roaming 2- to 3-year-olds
Schröer, L., Cooper, R., & Mareschal, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1210109 · Cited by 5
“, 2015), and many studies have already demonstrated a relationship between working memory and inhibition and between school readiness and school success in childhood (Bull and Scerif, 2001; Blair and Raza, 2007; Bull et al., 2008; Gathercole et al., 2008; Clark et al., 2010; Espy et al., 2010; Welsh et al., 2010; Mone…”
Background
The longitudinal contributions of preschool executive functions and early math abilities to arithmetic skills in elementary school
Akhavein, K., Clark, C. A. C., Nelson, J. M., Espy, K. A., & Finch, J. E. (2023) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2023.101388 · Cited by 10
Visual Models for Abstract Concepts Towards Better Learning Outcomes and Self-Efficacy
Min, K. J., Jackman, J. K., & Chan, J. C. K. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--23296 · Cited by 5
Estrategias ejecutivas de búsqueda, recuperación y cambio en la fluidez verbal
Coni, A. G., & Vivas, J. R. (2014) · Revista Evaluar · doi:10.35670/1667-4545.v14.n1.11520 · Cited by 5
Attention as a cueing function during kindergarten children's dimensional change task performance
Coldren, J. T., & Colombo, J. A. (2009) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.632 · Cited by 5
Private speech use in arithmetical calculation: relationship with phonological memory skills in children with and without mathematical difficulties
Ostad, S. A. (2015) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-015-0103-1 · Cited by 5
“Arguably, phonological memory is an important factor in the process of arithmetic problem solving (Bull and Scerif, 2001; Fürst and Hitch, 2000).”
Background
MEMORIA DE TRABAJO VERBAL Y SU RELACIÓN CON VARIABLES SOCIO-DEMOGRÁFICAS EN NIÑOS COLOMBIANOS
Ruíz, N. C., & del Río, P. (2012) · Repositorio Institucional Universidad Católica de Colombia (Universidad Católica de Colombia) · Cited by 5
Is strategy variability advantageous? It depends on grade and type of strategy
Carr, M., & Taasoobshirazi, G. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.01.015 · Cited by 5
Physical Activity, Fitness, and Cognition
Kamijo, K. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-800778-5.00010-4 · Cited by 5
Cognitive Interferences and Their Development in the Context of Numerical Tasks
Goldfarb, L. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811529-9.00013-3 · Cited by 5
Expanding Task Instructions May Increase Fractions Problem Difficulty for Students With Mathematics Learning Disability
Herold, K. H., Bock, A. M., Murphy, M. M., & Mazzocco, M. M. M. (2019) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0731948719865476 · Cited by 7
“…of students with MLD, based on their limited conceptual grasp of fractions and their reported challenges maintaining information in working memory (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Murphy et al., 2007), and that a hindering effect will be partially accounted for by the relation between their EF and fractions…”
Background
Take it of your shoulders: Providing scaffolds leads to better performance on mathematical word problems in secondary school children with developmental coordination disorder
Reynvoet, B., Marinova, M., & Sasanguie, D. (2020) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2020.103745 · Cited by 5
Assessing learning effort with hand motion tracking methods
Rheem, H., Becker, D. V., & Craig, S. D. (2020) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3784 · Cited by 5
The Role of Executive Function and Self-Regulation in the Development of Computational Thinking
Myers, E. K. (2021) · Advances in early childhood and K-12 education · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7308-2.ch004 · Cited by 5
Adults’ use of subtraction by addition and its association with executive functions
Auwera, S. V. D., Smedt, B. D., Torbeyns, J., & Verschaffel, L. (2022) · Journal of Numerical Cognition · doi:10.5964/jnc.7271 · Cited by 5
“We calculated an interference score (Bull & Scerif, 2001; i.e., mean time incongruent items - mean time baseline) as measure for inhibition, both for the Simon task and the Flanker task.”
Method
Untitled work
(2006) · doi:10.5897/err.9000188 · Cited by 214
“For example, low working memory scores have been found to be closely related to poor computational skills (Wilson and Swanson, 2001), and reliably differentiate children with mathematical deficits from same-age controls (Geary et al., 1999; Bull and Scerif, 2001).”
Background
Untitled work
(2014) · Zero to three · Cited by 40

Authors: Bull, R., & Scerif, G.
Affiliations: University of Aberdeen (GB)
ORCID: Bull, Rebecca
Scerif, Gaia
Venue: Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2001-06
Volume: 19
Issue: 3
Pages: 273-293
ISSN: 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
8756-5641
DOI: 10.1207/s15326942dn1903_3
OpenAlex: W2142887785
Semantic Scholar: 813c3c045849f82cac2db2f26cee0ca306349f28
Cited by: 1,501
References: 67
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 78 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 112 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 103 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 80
FWCI: 13.01
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Nuffield Foundation
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: executive function, mathematical ability, children, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory, central executive, dual-task performance, Stroop task, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, strategy evaluation
MeSH terms: Child, Cognition, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Mathematics, Memory

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Executive Functioning as a Predictor of Children's Mathematics Ability: Inhibition, Switching, and Working Memory

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