Cited by 1,501Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skillsDevelopmental and Educational NeuropsychologyCognitive Abilities and Testing

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Executive Functioning as a Predictor of Children's Mathematics Ability: Inhibition, Switching, and Working Memory

Bull, Rebecca, Scerif, Gaia·2001·Developmental Neuropsychology

DOI 10.1207/s15326942dn1903_3

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Abstract

Children's mathematical skills were considered in relation to executive functions. Using multiple measures--including the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (WCST), dual-task performance, Stroop task, and counting span-it was found that mathematical ability was significantly correlated with all measures of executive functioning, with the exception of dual-task performance. Furthermore, regression analyses revealed that each executive function measure predicted unique variance in mathematics ability. These results are discussed in terms of a central executive with diverse functions (Shallice & Burgess, 1996) and with recent evidence from Miyake, et al. (2000) showing the unity and diversity among executive functions. It is proposed that the particular difficulties for children of lower mathematical ability are lack of inhibition and poor working memory, which result in problems with switching and evaluation of new strategies for dealing with a particular task. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed, along with suggestions for task changes and longitudinal studies that would clarify theoretical and developmental issues related to executive functioning.

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“…skills, inhibitory control has received significant focus in relation to children’s academic adjustment with links to specific subject mastery (Bull and Scerif, 2001; Clark et al., 2010), school enjoyment (Valiente et al., 2007) and readiness for school entry (Duncan et al., 2007; Howse et…”
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Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S. H., Duivenvoorden, H. J., Weisglas‐Kuperus, N., van Goudoever, J. B., & Oosterlaan, J. (2011) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04150.x · Cited by 163
Is preschool executive function causally related to academic achievement?
Willoughby, M. T., Kupersmidt, J. B., & Voegler‐Lee, M. E. (2011) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.578572 · Cited by 164
“…related to math than reading achievement, which is theoretically interesting given the presumed involvement of the prefrontal cortex in both solving math problems and completing inhibitory control tasks (Blair & Razza, 2007; Bull, Espy, & Wiebe, 2008; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Espy et al., 2004).”
Background
Does executive function mediate SES and home quality associations with academic readiness?
Dilworth‐Bart, J. E. (2012) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.02.002 · Cited by 163
Working Memory in Dutch Children with Reading- and Arithmetic-Related LD
van der Sluis, S., van der Leij, A., & de Jong, P. F. (2005) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/00222194050380030301 · Cited by 145
Dyscalculia and dyslexia in adults: cognitive bases of comorbidity
Wilson, A. J., Andrewes, S. G., Struthers, H., Rowe, V. M., Bogdanovic, R., & Waldie, K. E. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2014.11.017 · Cited by 144
Executive function deficits in children born preterm or at low birthweight: a meta‐analysis
van Houdt, C. A., Oosterlaan, J., Leemhuis, A. G., van Kaam, A. H., & Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S. H. (2019) · Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology · doi:10.1111/dmcn.14213 · Cited by 163
“Executive functions are increasingly studied because of their crucial role in the onset of academic and behavioural problems.(13,14) Even as early as the toddler and preschool years, executive functions are predictive of both (pre-)academic skills and behaviour problems.”
Background
Verbal working memory in children with mild intellectual disabilities
van der Molen, M. J., Luit, J. E. H. V., Jongmans, M. J., & van der Molen, M. J. (2006) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00863.x · Cited by 142
Cognitive flexibility predicts early reading skills
Colé, P., Duncan, L. G., & Blaye, A. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00565 · Cited by 165
“…involved in the acquisition of theory of mind (Müller et al., 2005) but it is the role that flexibility is thought to play in academic learning skills (Bull and Scerif, 2001; Bull et al., 2008; Yeniad et al., 2013)1 that has led to our focus on this aspect of EF in relation to reading acquisition.”
Background
Executive functioning and school adjustment: The mediational role of pre-kindergarten learning-related behaviors
Sasser, T. R., Bierman, K. L., & Heinrichs, B. S. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.09.001 · Cited by 161
Predicting Early School Achievement With the EDI: A Longitudinal Population-Based Study
Forget‐Dubois, N., Lemelin, J., Boivin, M., Dionne, G., Séguin, J. R., Vitaro, F., & Tremblay, R. E. (2007) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409280701610796 · Cited by 140
“Memory has also been found to be associated with aspects of school achievement, especially mathematics (Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
Background
Setting goals to switch between tasks: Effect of cue transparency on children’s cognitive flexibility.
Chevalier, N., & Blaye, A. (2009) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015409 · Cited by 158
Self-regulation: Brain, cognition, and development.
Berger, A. (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12327-000 · Cited by 150
Social networking sites and cognitive abilities: Do they make you smarter?
Alloway, T. P., Horton, J., Alloway, R. G., & Dawson, C. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.030 · Cited by 136
“Working memory is also linked to math outcomes: low working memory scores are closely related to poor performance on arithmetic word problems (Swanson & Sachse-Lee, 2001; also Alloway & Passolunghi, 2011) and poor computational skills (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Geary, Hoard, & Hamson, 1999).”
Background
The contributions of domain-general and numerical factors to third-grade arithmetic skills and mathematical learning disability.
Cowan, R., & Powell, D. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034097 · Cited by 138
“The requirement to inhibit a judgment based on physical size may make the task more sensitive to domain-general factors as inhibition is an aspect of executive functioning (Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
A 30‐Minute Physical Education Program Improves Students' Executive Attention
Kubesch, S., Walk, L. M., Spitzer, M., Kammer, T., Lainburg, A., Heim, R., & Hille, K. (2009) · Mind Brain and Education · doi:10.1111/j.1751-228x.2009.01076.x · Cited by 162
“Therefore, children of lower mathematical ability have difficulties in dealing with tasks that measure inhibition of prepotent information and learned strategies, and also show a working memory deficit (Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
BackgroundMethod
Working memory and executive function profiles of individuals with borderline intellectual functioning
Alloway, T. P. (2010) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01281.x · Cited by 150
V. NIH TOOLBOX COGNITION BATTERY (CB): MEASURING WORKING MEMORY
Tulsky, D. S., Carlozzi, N. E., Chevalier, N., Espy, K. A., Beaumont, J. L., & Mungas, D. (2013) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12035 · Cited by 146
Using block play to enhance preschool children’s mathematics and executive functioning: A randomized controlled trial
Schmitt, S. A., Korucu, I., Napoli, A. R., Bryant, L. M., & Purpura, D. J. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.04.006 · Cited by 157
The Multiple Subfunctions of Attention: Differential Developmental Gateways to Literacy and Numeracy
Steele, A., Karmiloff‐Smith, A., Cornish, K. M., & Scerif, G. (2012) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01809.x · Cited by 158
“…studies have shown that executive abilities distinguish low and high mathematics ability (Bull, Espy, Wiebe, Sheffield, & Nelson, 2011; Bull & Scerif, 2001), longitudinal findings in this area are exceedingly rare, and where they do exist they have focused on the school years rather…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Cognitive and behavioral rating measures of executive function as predictors of academic outcomes in children.
Gerst, E. H., Cirino, P. T., Fletcher, J. M., & Yoshida, H. (2017) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1120860 · Cited by 133
Executive function and early childhood education
Blair, C. (2016) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.05.009 · Cited by 176
Training working memory in kindergarten children: Effects on working memory and early numeracy
Kroesbergen, E. H., Noordende, J. E. V. '., & Kolkman, M. E. (2012) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2012.736483 · Cited by 131
Measuring the development of executive control with the shape school.
Espy, K. A., Bull, R., Martin, J., & Stroup, W. (2006) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.4.373 · Cited by 130
“In future studies, further support for separable inhibitory skills could be established through unique relations to other cognitive or behavior outcomes (e.g., Bull & Scerif, 2001 ) or through distinct patterns of relative impairments in young children who have specific clinical disorders.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Executive function deficits in kindergarten predict repeated academic difficulties across elementary school
Morgan, P. L., Farkas, G., Wang, Y., Hillemeier, M. M., Oh, Y., & Maczuga, S. (2018) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.06.009 · Cited by 159
Different components of working memory have different relationships with different mathematical skills
Simmons, F. R., Willis, C., & Adams, A.-M. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2011.08.011 · Cited by 128
“…were measures of wider executive functions (specifically shifting and retrieval from long-term memory) rather than complex working memory measures that tap the working memory component of the central executive (see Bull & Scerif, 2001, for a review of the fractionation of executive functions).”
Background
The Negative Association of Childhood Obesity to Cognitive Control of Action Monitoring
Kamijo, K., Pontifex, M. B., Khan, N. A., Raine, L. B., Scudder, M. R., Drollette, E. S., Evans, E. M., Castelli, D. M., & Hillman, C. H. (2012) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs349 · Cited by 141
Exploring working memory in children with low arithmetical achievement
D’Amico, A., & Guarnera, M. A. (2005) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2005.01.002 · Cited by 126
Executive functions in learning processes: Do they benefit from physical activity?
Barenberg, J., Berse, T., & Dutke, S. (2011) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2011.04.002 · Cited by 126
Mathematical competencies in children with different types of learning difficulties.
Andersson, U. (2008) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.48 · Cited by 131
Are There Executive Dysfunction Subtypes Within ADHD?
Roberts, B. A., Martel, M. M., & Nigg, J. T. (2017) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054713510349 · Cited by 116
“Furthermore, EF impairment, particularly set-shifting, is associated with academic problems (Biederman et al., 2004; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Gathercole & Pickering, 2000) and lower intelligence (Mahone et al., 2002).”
Background
Support for an independent familial segregation of executive and intelligence endophenotypes in ADHD families
Rommelse, N. N. J., Altink, M. E., Oosterlaan, J., Buschgens, C. J. M., Buitelaar, J. K., & Sergeant, J. A. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291708002869 · Cited by 129
“This contrasts with some previous studies (Bull & Scerif, 2001 ; Miyake et al. 2001 ; Mahone et al. 2002 ; Gray et al. 2003), but is in linewith others (Welsh et al. 1991 ;Ardila et al. 2000 ; Polderman et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Executive functions, visual-motor coordination, physical fitness and academic achievement: Longitudinal relations in typically developing children
Oberer, N., Gashaj, V., & Roebers, C. M. (2018) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2018.01.003 · Cited by 147
“Since executive functions are known to be a strong predictor of academic achievement (see above; Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011; Blair & Raver, 2015; Bull & Scerif, 2001; Willoughby, Blair, Wirth, & Greenberg, 2012), an indirect influence of physical fitness on academic achievement, via executive…”
Background
Errors in Multi-Digit Arithmetic and Behavioral Inattention in Children With Math Difficulties
Raghubar, K. P., Cirino, P. T., Barnes, M. A., Ewing‐Cobbs, L., Fletcher, J. M., & Fuchs, L. S. (2009) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219409335211 · Cited by 124
“…children with poor mathematical skills, particularly young children, have impaired response inhibition and mental set switching (Bull et al., 1999; Bull & Scerif, 2001), and some of these skills in the preschool years are related to later achievement in arithmetic (Mazzocco & Kover, 2007).”
Background
The effects of inhibitory control training for preschoolers on reasoning ability and neural activity
Liu, Q., Zhu, X., Ziegler, A., & Shi, J. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep14200 · Cited by 141
Executive functioning predicts academic achievement in middle school: A four-year longitudinal study
Samuels, W. E., Tournaki, N., Blackman, S., & Zilinski, C. (2016) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.979913 · Cited by 150
“EF is a broad and not always consistently defined construct; different measures of it produce different relationships (e.g., Best et al., 2011; Bull & Scerif, 2001).”
Background
Math, monkeys, and the developing brain
Cantlon, J. F. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1201893109 · Cited by 123
Working Memory Failures in Children with Arithmetical Difficulties
Passolunghi, M. C., & Cornoldi, C. (2008) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297040701566662 · Cited by 123
Relationships between physical activity, sedentary time, aerobic fitness, motor skills and executive function and academic performance in children
Aadland, K. N., Moe, V. F., Aadland, E., Anderssen, S. A., Resaland, G. K., & Ommundsen, Y. (2017) · Mental Health and Physical Activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2017.01.001 · Cited by 134
Working memory deficits in developmental dyscalculia: The importance of serial order
Attout, L., & Majerus, S. (2014) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.922170 · Cited by 137
Executive functioning, emotion regulation, eating self-regulation, and weight status in low-income preschool children: How do they relate?
Hughes, S. O., Power, T. G., O’Connor, T. M., & Fisher, J. O. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.01.009 · Cited by 120
“Previous research 147 Page 7 of 43 8 with correlations between measures of executive functioning generally ranging between r = 0.20 149 and r = 0.35 (Bull & Scerif, 2001; Lehto, Juujarvi, Kooistra, & Pulkkinen, 2003; Wiebe, Espy, & 150 Charak, 2008).”
Influential

Authors: Bull, R., & Scerif, G.
Affiliations: University of Aberdeen (GB)
ORCID: Bull, Rebecca
Scerif, Gaia
Venue: Developmental Neuropsychology
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2001-06
Volume: 19
Issue: 3
Pages: 273-293
ISSN: 1532-6942 (ISSN-L)
8756-5641
DOI: 10.1207/s15326942dn1903_3
OpenAlex: W2142887785
Semantic Scholar: 813c3c045849f82cac2db2f26cee0ca306349f28
Cited by: 1,501
References: 67
Citations by year: 2026: 32 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 78 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 112 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 103 · 2013: 97 · 2012: 80
FWCI: 13.01
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Developmental Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Nuffield Foundation
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Keywords: executive function, mathematical ability, children, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, working memory, central executive, dual-task performance, Stroop task, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, strategy evaluation
MeSH terms: Child, Cognition, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Male, Mathematics, Memory

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Executive Functioning as a Predictor of Children's Mathematics Ability: Inhibition, Switching, and Working Memory

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