The DOI matches its Crossref record; 127 of the 140 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 86 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching
Open accessAbstract
Evidence for the superiority of guided instruction is explained in the context of our knowledge of human cognitive architecture, expert–novice differences, and cognitive load. Although unguided or minimally guided instructional approaches are very popular and intuitively appealing, the point is made that these approaches ignore both the structures that constitute human cognitive architecture and evidence from empirical studies over the past half-century that consistently indicate that minimally guided instruction is less effective and less efficient than instructional approaches that place a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process. The advantage of guidance begins to recede only when learners have sufficiently high prior knowledge to provide "internal" guidance. Recent developments in instructional research and instructional design models that support guidance during instruction are briefly described.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 32 No full text of the sources · 16 Sources not found · 12 No basis given · 8 Not checked yet · 4 Partly supported · 2 Supported · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Method passage says direct instruction included examples and explanations, while discovery learning included neither. The Day 1 assessment reports that 77% of children receiving direct instruction mastered the experimental-design skill, compared with 23% receiving discovery learning. The finding concerns this skill in third- and fourth-grade children, not learning in general. (LLM, conf=0.93)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 source
The Discussion reports that the few children who mastered the skill through discovery were as proficient at evaluating science-fair posters as those who mastered it through direct instruction. The Day 2: Poster Evaluations section likewise reports no difference in poster scores between the two groups. This supports the claim about the quality of learning among the relatively few discovery learners who achieved mastery. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Working memory has two well-known characteristics: When processing novel information, it is very limited in duration and in capacity.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Peterson & Peterson, 1959 source
- Partly supportedcites Miller, 1956 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In the discussion of immediate memory (pp. 92–93), Miller says its span is limited by the number of chunks, supporting the capacity part of the claim. The paper does not establish a limit on duration, and it does not specifically frame the finding as applying when processing novel information. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Klahr & Nigam, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Much of this work provides a clear antecedent to the expertise reversal effect, discussed earlier, according to which instructional methods that are effective for novices become less effective as expertise increases.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Woltz Article section reports that stronger treatments benefited less able learners, whereas weaker treatments benefited more able learners—an ATI pattern that could be viewed as an antecedent. It does not specifically discuss novices becoming experts or identify an expertise reversal effect, and it describes the ATI findings as somewhat inconsistent. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Constructivist approaches to instruction are based, in part, on a concern that individual differences moderate the impact of instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites Kyllonen & Lajoie, 2003 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The THEMES section describes aptitude–treatment interactions and says instruction should accommodate individual learners’ aptitudes. That supports the concern that individual differences affect how instruction works, but the paper does not connect that concern specifically to constructivist approaches. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Snow, Corno, & Jackson, 1996
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For novices, studying worked examples seems invariably superior to discovering or constructing a solution to a problem.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is a set of differently named but similar instructional approaches requiring minimal guidance that are disconnected from much that we know of human cognition.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We are skillful in an area because our long-term memory contains huge amounts of information concerning the area.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Controlled experiments almost uniformly indicate that when dealing with novel information, learners should be explicitly shown what to do and how to do it.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH COMPARING GUIDED AND UNGUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
- It may state two separate claims as one. 29
In the paper
“A similar line of reasoning was followed by Dehoney (1995), who posited that the mental models and strategies of experts have been developed through the slow process of accumulating experience in their domain areas.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dehoney, 1995
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The finding that expert chess players are far better able than novices to reproduce briefly seen board configurations taken from real games, but do not differ in reproducing random board configurations, has been replicated in a variety of other areas”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites De Groot, 1945/1965
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Chase & Simon, 1973 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complete information will result in a more accurate representation that is also more easily acquired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hardiman, Pollatsek, and Weil (1986) and Brown and Campione (1994) noted that when students learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost and frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hardiman, Pollatsek, & Weil, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brown & Campione, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The more knowledgeable learners did not experience a negative effect and benefited equally from both types of treatments.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet it may be a fundamental error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on methods and processes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional theory that ignores the limits of working memory when dealing with novel information or ignores the disappearance of those limits when dealing with familiar information is unlikely to be effective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Working Memory Characteristics and Functions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, that working memory load does not contribute to the accumulation of knowledge in long-term memory because while working memory is being used to search for problem solutions, it is not available and cannot be used to learn.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Implications of Human Cognitive Architecture for Constructivist Instruction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Tuovinen and Sweller (1999) showed that exploration practice (a discovery technique) caused a much larger cognitive load and led to poorer learning than worked-examples practice.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The constructivist description of learning is accurate, but the instructional consequences suggested by constructivists do not necessarily follow.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Any instructional recommendation that does not or cannot specify what has been changed in long-term memory, or that does not increase the efficiency with which relevant information is stored in or retrieved from long-term memory, is likely to be ineffective.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Minimally guided instruction appears to proceed with no reference to the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory, or the intricate relations between them.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN COGNITIVE ARCHITECTURE FOR MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most learners of all ages know how to construct knowledge when given adequate information and there is no evidence that presenting them with partial information enhances their ability to construct a representation more than giving them full information.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > THE ORIGINS OF CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE CURRENT VIEW OF MINIMALLY GUIDED INSTRUCTION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In all of the many studies he reported, guided instruction not only produced more immediate recall of facts than unguided approaches, but also longer term transfer and problem-solving skills.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mayer, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Solving a problem requires problem-solving search and search must occur using our limited working memory.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Berkson (1993) also reviewed much of the literature on PBL and arrived at many of the same conclusions as Albanese and Mitchell (1993).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“He provided evidence that the same learner might benefit from stronger and weaker treatments depending on the type of learning and transfer outcome desired.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Woltz, 2003 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Each of these and other publications by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences amply document the lack of evidence for unguided approaches and the benefits of more strongly guided instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Empirical Evidence About Science Learning From Unguided Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCray, DeHaan, and Schuck (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gollub, Berthanthal, Labov, and Curtis (2003)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Kilpatrick, Swafford, and Findell (2001)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, problem-solving search overburdens limited working memory and requires working memory resources to be used for activities that are unrelated to learning.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the instructional methods described by Cronbach and Snow (1977) strong treatments implied highly structured instructional presentations where explicit organization of information and learning support were provided.The weaker treatments were relatively unstructured and so provided much less learning support.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both researchers concluded that the available evidence does not support the use of minimal guidance and both suggested that some form of stronger guidance is necessary for both effective learning and transfer.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Roblyer, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Perkins, 1991
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, studying a worked example both reduces working memory load because search is reduced or eliminated and directs attention (i.e., directs working memory resources) to learning the essential relations between problem-solving moves.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Their meta-analysis of the English language literature of the effectiveness of PBL produced a number of negative findings concerning its impact, including lower basic science exam scores, no differences in residency selections, and more study hours each day.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“They reported that although PBL students receive better scores for their clinical performance, they also order significantly more unnecessary tests at a much higher cost per patient with less benefit.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It emphasizes the importance of providing novices in an area with extensive guidance because they do not have sufficient knowledge in long-term memory to prevent unproductive problem-solving search.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Current Research Supporting Direct Guidance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“All in all, a lack of clarity about the difference between learning a discipline and research in the discipline coupled with the priority afforded to unbiased observation in the best inductivist and empiricist tradition has led many educators to advocate a problem-based method as the way to teach a discipline (Allen, Barker, & Ramsden, 1986;Anthony, 1973;Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980;Obioma, 1986).”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Clark hypothesized that the most effective components of treatments help less experienced learners by providing task-specific learning strategies embedded in instructional presentations.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Not matched
In the paper
“More able learners, he suggested, have acquired implicit, task-specific learning strategies that are more effective for them than those embedded in the structured versions of the course.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“He concluded that the magnitude of these statistics is not sufficient to meet standards of predictive validity to support the use of the measures or the experiential methods for training at work.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL MODELS FAVORING MINIMAL GUIDANCE DURING INSTRUCTION IN VARIOUS SETTINGS
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Iliff, 1994
- Not matchedcites Kolb, Boyatzis, & Mainemelis, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Higher aptitude students who chose highly structured approaches tended to like them but achieve at a lower level than with less structured versions but did not suffer by knowing less after than before instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Clark, 1982 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Clark pointed to suggestive evidence that more able students who select the more guided versions of courses do so because they believe that they will achieve the required learning with a minimum of effort.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Knowing Less After Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Clark, 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Cronbach and Snow's (1977) review of ATI research described a number of replicated ordinal and disordinal interactions between various instructional methods and aptitudes.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Individual Differences in Learning From Instruction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Cronbach & Snow, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“There was an indication in their review that increased clinical practice evaluation scores may have been due to the fact the PBL students are required to spend more time in clinical settings.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Albanese & Mitchell, 1993
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“She reviewed studies where the problem-solving ability of PBL students was compared with the same ability in conventionally trained students and found no support for any differences, and so failed to replicate the clinical advantage found by Albanese and Mitchell.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Berkson, 1993 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, it may be an error to assume that the pedagogic content of the learning experience is identical to the methods and processes (i.e., the epistemology) of the discipline being studied and a mistake to assume that instruction should exclusively focus on application.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Also important for medical educators has been the constant finding in research summaries that PBL is not more effective but is more costly than traditional instruction.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites research summaries
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the reasons for the ongoing popularity of a failed approach are unclear, the origins of the support for instruction with minimal guidance in science education and medical education might be found in the post-Sputnik science curriculum reforms such as Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Chemical Education Material Study, and Physical Science Study Committee.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) found that participants trained in PBL retained the backward-directed reasoning pattern, but did not seem to acquire forward-directed reasoning, which is a hallmark of expertise.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practice of a profession is not the same as learning to practice the profession.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not only is unguided instruction normally less effective; there is also evidence that it may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This point of view appears to have led to unguided practical or project work and the rejection of instruction based on the facts, laws, principles, and theories that make up a discipline's content.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Arocha and Patel (1995) concluded that the negative results can be accounted for by the effect of splitting of attention resources and the high working memory load on schema acquisition during problem solving.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Arocha and Patel (1995) source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At that time, educators shifted away from teaching a discipline as a body of knowledge toward the assumption that knowledge can best or only be learned through experience that is based only on the procedures of the discipline.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > CONCLUSIONS
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If students have difficulty separating the biomedical knowledge they have learned from the particular clinical cases associated with that knowledge, it is not surprising that when given a different problem they bring to bear on the new problem some irrelevant biomedical knowledge.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although PBL students generated more elaborate explanations, they had less coherent explanations and more errors.”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Medical Problem-Based Learning Research
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Patel, Groen, and Norman (1993) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“La mémoire de travail est la structure cognitive dans laquelle les processus conscients ont lieu. Elle est très limitée à la fois en durée et en quantité.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“these results align with claims that a certain degree of instructional support is needed in the use of video games in order to achieve the desired learning outcome [81-83].”
From The Effect of Multiplayer Video Games on Incidental and Intentional L2 Vocabulary Learning: The Case of Among Us (2021) · cites this paper as [81]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“la situation de résolution de problèmes non guidée place la mémoire de travail dans une situation de surcharge cognitive, rendant impossible le transfert d'informations dans la mémoire à long terme (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“This could potentially explain how step-by-step usage of the AI code generator could potentially reduce cognitive load and allow novices to learn faster due to more availability of their mental resources, specifcally for germane cognitive load which is responsible for creating mental models and storing long-term memory [46].”
From Studying the effect of AI Code Generators on Supporting Novice Learners in Introductory Programming (2023) · cites this paper as [46]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Analysis of Kirschner et al. [16] showed that learning with DBL and related methods is highly complex, and can thus overwhelm learners.”
From Students as Designers of Augmented Reality: Impact on Learning and Motivation in Computer Science (2021) · cites this paper as [16]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“il est nécessaire de tenir compte des limitations de la mémoire de travail, chose que ne font pas toujours les approches minimalement guidées”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“le but de toute instruction est donc de modifier la mémoire à long terme.”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“To the best of our knowledge, this is the first integrative empirical counterevidence against the claim that problem solving as a sensemaking activity for novices is not an effective instructional approach (cf. Kirschner etal., 2006, and follow-up work).”
From When Problem Solving Followed by Instruction Works: Evidence for Productive Failure (2021) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Scaffolding in these contexts also has the potential to help problem-centered instructional models overcome criticisms that they do not lead to adequate content learning (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The former is more closely aligned with a teaching model that emphasises direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Examining Science Education in ChatGPT: An Exploratory Study of Generative Artificial Intelligence (2023) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the usage of guided discovery learning is more effective and efficient than a minimally guided instructional approach (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006) because it provides the guidance needed by students to achieve the intended learning outcome (Mayer, 2004).”
From Teaching and Learning Science Using YouTube Videos and Discovery Learning in Primary School (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These domain-specific, biologically secondary skills need to be explicitly taught (Kirschner et al. 2006; Sweller et al. 2007) and actively learned.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al. 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cette différence entre (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'apprentissage et (socio)constructivisme comme démarche d'enseignement (dont l'efficacité est remise en doute par des recherches basées sur des données probantes décrites dans les sections 1 et 3) a également été relevée par Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006) : « La description constructiviste de l'apprentissage est exacte, mais les”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner, Sweller et Clark (2006)
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“presque toutes les informations stockées en mémoire de travail qui ne sont pas répétées sont perdues après 30 secondes (Kirschner et al., 2006)”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“l'exploration libre d'un environnement complexe peut générer une forte charge cognitive qui est néfaste à l'apprentissage. Ceci est particulièrement vrai pour les apprenants novices (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tuovinen et Sweller (1999) ont montré que la « pratique d'exploration » (une approche par la découverte) causait une bien plus grande charge cognitive et menait à un apprentissage plus pauvre que les problèmes déjà résolus (« worked examples ») (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“les « experts en résolution de problèmes » développent leurs compétences en s'appuyant sur leur grande expérience qui leur a permis de stocker nombre de schémas dans leur mémoire à long terme; ces derniers leur permettant de résoudre plus facilement les problèmes (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Un apprenant peut donc être engagé dans des activités de résolution de problèmes pendant un temps important et ne presque rien apprendre en fin de compte (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
From Enseignement explicite et développement decompétences : antinomie ou nécessité? (2020) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Those who think they are capable of multitasking tend to overestimate their ability in the actual multitasking tasks (Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or assume they can do them without the loss of efficiency and productivity (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).”
From The indirect relationship of media multitasking self-efficacy on learning performance within the personal learning environment: Implications from the mechanism of perceived attention problems and self-regulation strategies (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006) have shown that there exists a clear body of research using controlled experiments indicating that the relatively guided instructional procedures supported by cognitive load theorists are more effective (at least for novice students) than relatively unguided instructional procedures used by advocates of discovery or inquiry learning.”
From Cognitive Load Theory: New Conceptualizations, Specifications, and Integrated Research Perspectives (2010) · cites this paper as P. A. Kirschner et al. (2006)
In the citing paper
“Adaptive feedback (which is well-known to be essential in exploratory learning environments, Kirschner et al., 2006) is provided to students based on their interactions with the system and their affective states.”
From Affective learning: Improving engagement and enhancing learning with affect-aware feedback (2017) · cites this paper as Kirschner et al., 2006
In the citing paper
“if a learning environment is too cognitively demanding, schema construction and schema automation in LTM are not going to occur (P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006).”
From Making the Black Box of Collaborative Learning Transparent: Combining Process-Oriented and Cognitive Load Approaches (2010) · cites this paper as P.A. Kirschner et al. 2006
In the citing paper
“There is a strong inclination toward exploratory teaching pedagogies involving digital resources for teaching about AI (c.f. [99,100]).”
From In search of artificial intelligence (AI) literacy in teacher education: A scoping review (2024) · cites this paper as [99]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > Human Cognitive Architecture
“De Groot's (1945Groot's ( /1965) work on chess expertise”
§ Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work > References
“De Groot, A. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague, Nether- lands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)”
Citations
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- Kolb, D. A. (1971). Individual learning styles and the learning process (Working Paper No. 535-71). Cambridge, MA: Sloan School of Management, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
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- Trafton, J. G. & Reiser, R. J. (1993). The contribution of studying examples and solving problems to skill acquisition. In M. Polson (Ed.), Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 1017-1022). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 4,701–4,800 of 6,869
Improving proof comprehension in undergraduate mathematics
Hodds, M. (2014) · Loughborough University Institutional Repository (Loughborough University) · Cited by 2
Mandated differentiated instruction effectiveness examined
Graham, K. J. (2009) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 2
Teaching Mathematics Effectively to Primary Students in Developing Countries
Søndergaard, B. D., & Cachaper, C. (2008) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/28116 · Cited by 1
“Advanced and very bright students may excel at discovery but for the average students the research suggests that explicit instruction is more efficient (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLearner-generated versus author-provided computer-based flow diagrams in medical education
Kononowicz, A. A., & Kenig, J. (2013) · Bio-Algorithms and Med-Systems · doi:10.1515/bams-2013-0005 · Cited by 1
“Lack of sufficient scaffolding in learning activities is a recognized problem of instructional design [17, 18] and should be dealt with by providing better guidance and support within learning activities.”
BackgroundSchuh, K. L., & Kuo, Y.-L. (2014) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2014.940307 · Cited by 1
“Further, the discussion about the limitations of guided instruction (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006; Tobias and Duffy 2009a) as well as Maddux and Cummings’ (1999) question of whether constructivist teaching goals are developmentally appropriate for younger learners also pointed to the need to…”
BackgroundAuthentic Learning Research and Practice: Issues, Challenges, and Future Directions
Cho, Y. H., Caleon, I. S., & Kapur, M. (2015) · Education innovation series · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-521-1_20 · Cited by 1
Rousi, R. A., & Leikas, J. (2015) · 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2015.7344209 · Cited by 1
“This relates to the minimal amount of lectures, an argument which contradicts the problems seen in the work of Mills and Treagust [22] who note the prominence of pen and paper engineering education, which sacrifices student motivation and engagement for the safety of traditional teaching implementation.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialToh, T. K., Koh, J. H. L., & Chai, C. S. (2017) · International Journal of Christianity & Education · doi:10.1177/2056997117694385 · Cited by 1
ThinkInk - An Intelligent Sketch Tool for Learning Data Structures
Imtiaz, M. A., Luxton-Reilly, A., & Plimmer, B. (2018) · Extended Abstracts of the CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/3170427.3188441 · Cited by 1
“The highly constrained tasks are designed to provide high levels of guidance and feedback for students, which is known to be valuable for novices [8].”
BackgroundMethodAdding all up: Mathematical Learning Difficulties Around the World
Haase, V. G., & Krinzinger, H. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97148-3_20 · Cited by 4
Competing Demands and Barriers
Merga, M. K. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21025-0_5 · Cited by 1
Designing Short-Term, Faculty-Led Study Abroad Programs
Tuzovic, S. (2019) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1607-2.ch003 · Cited by 1
Addressing Students’ Creativity in Algorithm Design
Velázquez‐Iturbide, J. Á. (2020) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon45650.2020.9125179 · Cited by 1
Krakowski, M. (2020) · Journal of Jewish Education · doi:10.1080/15244113.2020.1841588 · Cited by 2
“(See, for example, the debate that took place in Educational Psychologist in 2006–2007: Dean & Kuhn, 2007; HmeloSilver et al., 2007; Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007).”
BackgroundBuilding a bioreactor: truly multidisciplinary bioengineering teaching
Funnell, A., Bangert, K., Fullwood, J., et al. (2020) · 2022 IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie44824.2020.9274241 · Cited by 1
“Open-ended practical design projects with little or no guidance from teaching staff are seen as a gold standard in engineering teaching programmes [5], yet the use of guided challenges and problems has been shown to be far more effective for knowledge retention [6].”
BackgroundUsing Student Feedback to Reflect on Authentic PBL (aPBL) in Undergraduate Engineering Education
Lambert, C., & Ashwin, P. (2021) · Journal of Problem-Based Learning · doi:10.24313/jpbl.2020.00311 · Cited by 1
Teaching a First-Year Research Experience through Archived Oral Histories
Keller, D. E., & Kerr, M. M. (2021) · College Teaching · doi:10.1080/87567555.2021.1940815 · Cited by 1
Serious Games to Support Agile and Lean Methodologies
Tsalapatas, H., Heidmann, O., & Jesmin, T. (2021) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2082-9_7 · Cited by 1
Approaches to Teaching for Achieving Equitable Outcomes
McPhail, G. J. (2021) · Springer briefs in education · doi:10.1007/978-981-16-2908-2_2 · Cited by 1
Invented spelling intervention programmes: Comparing explicit and implicit instructions
Almeida, T., Silva, C., & Rosa, J. (2021) · Análise Psicológica · doi:10.14417/ap.1848 · Cited by 1
“The authors (Kirschner et al., 2006; Sweller et al., 2007) argues that learning based on discovery and using minimal guidance during the instruction of novice learners (Clark, 2009; Kirschner et al., 2006) is less productive (Sweller, 2004, 2012).”
BackgroundHow Might Authentic Scientific Experiences Promote an Understanding of Genetics in High School?
Dorfman, B., & Yarden, A. (2021) · Contributions from biology education research · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-86051-6_6 · Cited by 1
Discrete-Events Simulation for Teaching Statistics in Industrial Engineering
Saïd, F., Eveno, I., & Villaneau, J. (2022) · Athens Journal of Τechnology & Engineering · doi:10.30958/ajte.9-1-4 · Cited by 1
“Mirroring this, a learning situation that encourages personal investigation in a realistic context is rich and complex; it does not prescribe a single correct way of learning about reality or a single correct answer (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
BackgroundAltıok, S., & Yükseltürk, E. (2021) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-2411-7.ch030 · Cited by 1
A Critical Analysis of the Impact of Research in Education: A Systematic Review
Katukula, K. M., & Kambeyo, L. (2021) · Namibian Journal for Research Science and Technology · doi:10.54421/njrst.v3i2.35 · Cited by 1
Arifin, S., Nugraha, F. F., & Prasetyo, P. (2022) · doi:10.4108/eai.2-12-2021.2320193 · Cited by 1
“On the one hand, some experts argue that teaching mathematics should include a clear explanation from the teacher about the procedures followed by practice and correction [3].”
BackgroundNovanto, A. E., & Darsinah, D. (2022) · Al-Fikra Jurnal Ilmiah Keislaman · doi:10.24014/af.v21i1.15735 · Cited by 1
Zhou, T., & Loh, C. S. (2022) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-7589-8.ch088 · Cited by 1
Kassa, B. G., Ding, L., & Tamiru, A. B. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13020111 · Cited by 1
Cohen, E., Ben‐Zvi, D., & Hod, Y. (2023) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-023-09384-2 · Cited by 1
“If anything, epistemic agency “may have negative results when students acquire misconceptions or incomplete or disorganized knowledge” (Kirschner et al., 2006 , p. 84).”
BackgroundBanila, L., Miarsyah, M., & Vivanti, D. (2023) · JURNAL KAJIAN ISLAM MODERN · doi:10.56406/jkim.v9i01.196 · Cited by 1
Lukowski, S. L., Goeke, M., Schmit, B., & Bequette, M. B. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1120186 · Cited by 1
“Perhaps more closely aligned with the learning potential of makerspaces, long debates considering the merits of didactic versus discovery approaches to learning evidenced that structured activities can support learning (Mayer, 2004; Kirschner et al., 2006), though others continue to find advantages to exploratory over…”
BackgroundAhr, E., Potvin, P., Charland, P., Chastenay, P., Foisy, L. B., Bruyère, M.-H., Boissard, B., & Cyr, G. (2023) · Science Activities · doi:10.1080/00368121.2023.2236037 · Cited by 1
“Although debated (Cobern et al. 2010; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn 2007; Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), they have been shown to promote students' learning of scientific concepts and skills, scientific reasoning, and positive attitudes toward science (Blanchard et al. 2010; Gibson and Chase…”
BackgroundLoyens, S. M. M., Wijnia, L., Duker, I., Ferrer, E., & Rikers, R. M. J. P. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2107-2_2 · Cited by 5
Pepin, B., Kock, Z.-J., & Rezat, S. (2023) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95060-6_26-1 · Cited by 1
Using Mathematizing Supports for Applied Problem Solving in a Game-Based Learning Environment
Ke, F., Dai, C., West, L., et al. (2023) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331231206990 · Cited by 1
“The participants showed reluctance to process the support elements (e.g., text narratives in Math Story, multi-step prompts in Task Planner) that can be cognitively demanding (Kirschner et al., 2006; Nachtigall et al., 2020) yet lacking instant utility.”
BackgroundA Use-Case for Implementing ChatGPT to Augment Teaching an Introductory Statistics Course
Pannu, J., & Boosalis, C. (2023) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47454-5_15 · Cited by 1
Video blogging unveils co-occurrence of academic emotions and different learning situations
Loukomies, A., Sormunen, K., & Juuti, K. (2023) · Education 3-13 · doi:10.1080/03004279.2023.2290670 · Cited by 1
“The quality of instruction must be considered carefully in different learning environments (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
The two-faced process of learning and the importance of Janus-faced solutions
Samuelsson, R. (2023) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00210-w · Cited by 1
“A similar movement can be seen in educational psychology on the role of direct instruction from a teacher 13 .”
BackgroundDigitalisoituvan yliopistokoulutuksen diskurssit
Isosomppi, L., Maunula, M., & Maunumäki, M. (2023) · Kasvatus & Aika · doi:10.33350/ka.117105 · Cited by 4
A critical look at Adventure Education programs
Melero, E. G., Extremera, A. B., & Sánchez-Fuentes, J. A. (2023) · Cultura Ciencia y Deporte · doi:10.12800/ccd.v18i58.2121 · Cited by 2
The Effect of Incremental Scaffolds in Experimentation on Cognitive Load
Hülsmann, M., Stiller, C., & Wilde, M. (2024) · Science Journal of Education · doi:10.11648/j.sjedu.20241201.11 · Cited by 2
A Systemic Approach to Promoting Democratic Education in Schools
Zahedi, S. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-46297-9_36 · Cited by 2
Jensen, F., Kjærnsli, M., Knain, E., et al. (2024) · Nordic Studies in Science Education · doi:10.5617/nordina.9335 · Cited by 1
Riviezzo, A., Pagnozzi, F., & Antonelli, G. (2024) · Studies in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/03075079.2024.2354369 · Cited by 1
“They need to be explicitly supported (e.g. Lawson 2019), and individual differences must be taken into proper consideration (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006).”
Promoting teaching improvement in elementary mathematics: A case with inverse relations
Ding, M., Mochaourab, R., & Spiro, B. (2024) · Asian Journal for Mathematics Education · doi:10.1177/27527263241256678 · Cited by 1
“This process is relatively passive and thus has been criticized as being more akin to direct instruction (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
BackgroundWirksamkeit von Umweltbildung: Ein Überblick über internationale Meta-Analysen
Nachbauer, M. (2024) · ZEP – Zeitschrift für internationale Bildungsforschung und Entwicklungspädagogik · doi:10.31244/zep.2024.02.03 · Cited by 1
Bridging Extracurricular Skill Needs in Bioengineering Capstone Design with Just-in-Time Workshops
Bethke, E., Ansari, A., Amos, J. R., Bradley, J. A., Ochia, R. S., & Golecki, H. M. (2024) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--48410 · Cited by 1
Sun, Y., Feng, C., Peng, D., & Wu, B. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13050 · Cited by 1
Baroody, A. J., Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. H. (2024) · The Journal of Mathematical Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jmathb.2024.101178 · Cited by 3
Eyüboğlu, I. S. K., & Arslan, A. S. (2024) · Educational Academic Research · doi:10.33418/education.1458760 · Cited by 1
Hyland, T., Seery, N., & Buckley, J. (2024) · European Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1080/03043797.2024.2405860 · Cited by 2
“…information increases the potential for transfer to long-term memory prior to information loss via forgetting (Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas 2019), with this transfer being indicative of learning (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark 2006), which is directly associated with educational achievement.”
Understanding the world through transdisciplinary inquiry
Secomb, D. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009019378.016 · Cited by 1
Experimentieren im Chemieunterricht
Emden, M., Ropohl, M., & Rossow, M. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69820-4_11 · Cited by 1
The Story of Building Hedy: A Programming Language with Cognitive Science in Mind
Hermans, F. (2024) · Informatics in Education · doi:10.15388/infedu.2024.28 · Cited by 1
Du, J. L., Álvarez, J., & Schmitt, D. (2024) · Distances et médiations des savoirs · doi:10.4000/12xon · Cited by 1
Qualitative observations in university physics laboratories: an example from classical mechanics
Dunnett, K., & Magnusson, M. H. (2025) · European Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1361-6404/adec27 · Cited by 1
“Another objection sometimes made is that inquiry practical work is associated with unreasonable cognitive load for students [23], although this can be addressed through careful activity design and appropriate scaffolding [24, 25].”
Winkelmann, J., Wenzel, S. F. C., Ullrich, M., Horz, H., & Erb, R. (2025) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2025.2453954 · Cited by 5
“Instructions should offer steps that are not too detailed, as instructions involving too detailed guidance are not effective (Kirschner et al., 2006; Schmidt et al., 2007).”
Collaborative problem solving in science classrooms: Tools for developing 21st century skills
Negrón, J., López, M., Felmer, P. L., & Sepúlveda, C. L. (2025) · School Science and Mathematics · doi:10.1111/ssm.18343 · Cited by 1
Chaker, R., & Mbadjoin, T. N. (2025) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2025.2457392 · Cited by 3
“Indeed, the inefficiency of active methods has been explained from the educational psychology point of view (Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark, 2006): minimal guidance during the activity can lead to detrimental effects on working memory, and its connection with long-term memory.”
Dilek, H. (2025) · Uluslararası Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi · doi:10.46778/goputeb.1627316 · Cited by 1
Cognitive load theory and its application for learning
Abduqahhorova, M., & Khazratkulova, E. (2025) · doi:10.47689/zttctoi-vol1-iss1-pp143-145 · Cited by 1
Ветренко, Е. А. (2024) · Management of Education · doi:10.25726/x7685-8542-4520-q · Cited by 1
Brown, M. (2008) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.14742/apubs.2008.2529 · Cited by 1
“Research into the way we learn shows that a constructivist style of minimally guided instruction is not successful ( Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, 2006, Mayer, 2004).”
Shi, L., & Hill, R. B. (2025) · Journal of Technology Education · doi:10.21061/jte.v36i2.a.5 · Cited by 1
Engaging students through storytelling: A fictitious crime project
Marginean, I. (2025) · Science & Justice · doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2025.101280 · Cited by 2
Joshi, A., Marthen, W. D., & Megasari, N. (2025) · Forum for education studies. · doi:10.59400/fes2922 · Cited by 1
Designing Feedback for Exploratory Mathematical Activities: A Computational Thinking Perspective
Mumcu, F., Mavrikis, M., Karkalas, S., et al. (2025) · Constructionism Conference Proceedings · doi:10.21240/constr/2025/78.x · Cited by 1
Problem Solving in High School Biology: Students’ Agentic Response to Differentiation
English, J., Kang, J., https://orcid.org/0009-0005-9734-6298, et al. (2025) · Science education international · doi:10.33828/sei.v36.i2.5 · Cited by 1
Siddika, A. N. M., Keikhosrokiani, P., & Isomursu, M. (2025) · Lecture notes on data engineering and communications technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91351-8_21 · Cited by 1
A strategy to engage students in inquiry-based learning of mathematics: predict, observe and explain
Karakoc, G., Alacacı, C., & Ayas, A. (2025) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-025-09733-8 · Cited by 1
“Kirschner et al. (2006) caution that minimally guided approaches may not benefit students with limited prior knowledge, making guided inquiry more appropriate for heterogeneous classrooms.”
REACH: Extending reality for distributed collaborative making
Smith, C., & Tissenbaum, M. (2025) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2025.100111 · Cited by 2
Social justice in mathematics classes: a case in a university in the Philippines
Mocorro, R. E., & Mocorro, D. R. (2025) · Journal for Multicultural Education · doi:10.1108/jme-02-2025-0053 · Cited by 1
Modifications Made to CLT to Date
Kalyuga, S., & Plass, J. L. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190078539.003.0003 · Cited by 1
Bridging the Gap in Brazilian Literacy: Kalulu Phonics Provides Gains in 1st Grade Reading
Olalla, C. E. S., Sato, C. M., Valle-Lisboa, J. C., et al. (2025) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.70044 · Cited by 1
“These methods overlook evidence that self-directed learning is more effective when learners already have some prior knowledge (Kirschner et al. 2006).”
Interaction Design Education: AI Usage in the Design Process
Spérano, I., Roberge, J., McDow-York, D., Felfly, I., & Santos, H. A. (2025) · The International Journal of Design Education · doi:10.18848/2325-128x/cgp/v19i02/229-246 · Cited by 3
Chen, P., Yang, D., Zhao, J., Yang, S., & Lavonen, J. (2025) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.70116 · Cited by 1
Sulejmani, F., Bshennaty, A., & Hatoum, H. (2025) · Biomedical Engineering Education · doi:10.1007/s43683-025-00199-1 · Cited by 1
“This aligns with work by Kirschner et al. [56], who cautioned that poorly scaffolded discovery learning can lead to disil-lusionment when success is unlikely.”
Grundy, L. S., & Koretsky, M. (2025) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.70035 · Cited by 3
“Kirschner et al. (2006) and Sweller et al. (2024) argue that explicit direct instruction is necessary for novices to learn, contending that concepts should be “ fully explained ” and procedures “ fully modelled before learners are asked to apply those concepts or procedures ” (Sweller et al., 2024,…”
Löfstrôm, E., Lindemann, T., Blom, F., Evans, N., van den Hoven, M., Inguaggiato, G., Kavouras, P., Lanzerath, D., Prieß-Buchheit, J., Santos, R., et al. (2025) · Open Research Europe · doi:10.12688/openreseurope.20826.1 · Cited by 1
Yılmaz, T., & Dökme, Ï. (2025) · El-Cezeri Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi · doi:10.31202/ecjse.1726783 · Cited by 1
Neubauer-Hametner, D., Wendt, H., & Kasper, D. M. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1490875 · Cited by 3
Schultz-Pernice, F., Hofer, S. I., Sailer, M., Heitzmann, N., & Fischer, F. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-69557-9_22 · Cited by 1
Zhao, J., Yu, L., Fu, X., et al. (2025) · International Conference on Distance Education and Learning (ICDEL) · doi:10.1109/icdel65868.2025.11193557 · Cited by 1
“In the cloze code hint group, students frequently discussed the prompts themselves, suggesting a potential risk of over-reliance on external guidance [23].”
Zheng, K., & Fu, H. (2025) · Journal of Zoological and Botanical Gardens · doi:10.3390/jzbg6040053 · Cited by 1
Instruction consisting of a rule and set of examples and nonexamples reliably teaches concepts
Williams, C. L., & Roop, J. C. (2025) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.70061 · Cited by 1
“The number of processes can be minimized in different ways such as student prerequisite skills, helping students develop strategies to most directly get to the answer, or instructions (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Evaluating online class participation in higher education: a scoping review and a proposed framework
Hoo, H.-T., Ho, R., Chen, G., Tan, M., Goh, S. L., & Teo, N. (2025) · Learning Research and Practice · doi:10.1080/23735082.2025.2567279 · Cited by 1
Does Asking Questions Help Preschoolers Retain More Words Than Listening?
Janakiefski, L., & Saylor, M. M. (2025) · Journal of Child Language · doi:10.1017/s0305000925100287 · Cited by 1
Zhang, X., Dörig, V., Cui, P., Zouhar, V., Netland, T. H., & Sachan, M. (2025) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-025-00515-4 · Cited by 2
“However, cognitive load theory reveals that “ free exploration of a highly complex environment can overload working memory and hinder learning ” (Kirschner et al., 2006).”
Cashman, M., Strandh, M., & Högberg, B. (2025) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2025.2587963 · Cited by 3
Pre-teaching to enhance inclusive learning: connecting cognition, motivation, volition, and emotion
Blanc, B., Aydan, S., & Mamas, C. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1636343 · Cited by 1
Zhou, K., Hongyun, D. E. N. G., Chan, H. C., & Lin, C. (2025) · Professional Development in Education · doi:10.1080/19415257.2025.2586643 · Cited by 10
Koh, T., & Kim, Y. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su172310547 · Cited by 2
Kotsis, K. Τ. (2025) · European Journal of Contemporary Education and E-Learning · doi:10.59324/ejceel.2025.3(6).05 · Cited by 1
Jafari, M., Koberstein‐Schwarz, M., Priert, C., Böttcher, F., Leubecher, R., Menthe, J., & Meisert, A. (2025) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-025-10304-7 · Cited by 2
“…derived from the data, one suggestion can be that the target-mat plays a role in this study by structuring both the process and the arguments in terms of scaffolded tasks (Kirschner et al., 2006 ) as well as the documentation of student ideas as an external representation (Sawyer & Berson, 2004 ).”
A Stridently Situative Approach to Inclusive Engagement and Assessment
Hickey, D. T., Lam, C., & Luo, Q. (. (2025) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-83708-556-920251022 · Cited by 1
Goode, E., Roche, T., Wilson, E., & Zhang, J. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15111425 · Cited by 1
Park, H. S., & Cho, H. M. (2025) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.5c00448 · Cited by 1
Li, Z., & Tınmaz, H. (2025) · Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists · doi:10.17478/jegys.1824359 · Cited by 4
Harms, S. E. (2026) · PDS Partners Bridging Research to Practice · doi:10.1108/pdsp-06-2025-0012 · Cited by 1
Investigating the Effects of Prompt Engineering in STEM Activities Designed with ChatGPT-4o
Güler, N. K., & Tarım, K. (2025) · Cukurova University Faculty of Education Journal · doi:10.14812/cuefd.1673406 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2006-06
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 75-86
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1976637107
- Semantic Scholar
- cb9f9f2768fbb5eeab699c9147d622fc68b9edac
- Cited by
- 7,776
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 705 · 2025: 534 · 2024: 429 · 2023: 407 · 2022: 394 · 2021: 458 · 2020: 519 · 2019: 457 · 2018: 431 · 2017: 387 · 2016: 446 · 2015: 428 · 2014: 388 · 2013: 399 · 2012: 376
- FWCI
- 117.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- UNSWorks (UNSW Sydney) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Utrecht University Repository (Utrecht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion)
- DSpace (Open University in the Netherlands) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- guided teaching, constructivist teaching, discovery learning, problem-based learning, experiential learning, inquiry-based learning, cognitive architecture, expert-novice differences, cognitive load, prior knowledge, instructional design model
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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