The Equivalence of Learning Paths in Early Science Instruction
Open accessAbstract
In a study with 112 third- and fourth-grade children, we measured the relative effectiveness of discovery learning and direct instruction at two points in the learning process: (a) during the initial acquisition of the basic cognitive objective (a procedure for designing and interpreting simple, unconfounded experiments) and (b) during the subsequent transfer and application of this basic skill to more diffuse and authentic reasoning associated with the evaluation of science-fair posters. We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own. These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
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Claims the paper makes
1 of 14 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Premisecitation
When direct instruction was adapted to a classroom lesson plan, mean CVS performance increased from 30% before instruction to 96% after instruction.
“When the direct-instruction procedure was adapted from an experimental script to a lesson plan implemented in a classroom setting, mean CVS performance increased from 30% prior to instruction to 96% following instruction (Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Toth, Klahr, & Chen, 2000 source
The CVS Performance section reports that mean performance in individual interviews increased from 30% before instruction to 97% after instruction, not 96%. The classroom-worksheet analysis also reports 97% after instruction, but its preinstruction figure is 58%. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
On the modified grand poster score excluding CVS-related comments, experts and masters outperformed nonmasters regardless of learning path.
“The results, shown in Table 2, replicated the pattern for the grand poster score: Experts and masters outperformed nonmasters, regardless of the learning paths.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters.
“Table 2 shows that experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters had higher grand poster scores than discovery nonmasters and direct-instruction nonmasters, d 5 0.83.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Direct instruction produced 77% CVS masters (40/52) versus 23% (12/52) for discovery learning.
“Forty of the 52 direct-instruction children (77%) became masters, whereas only 12 of the 52 discovery children (23%) did so, w 2 (1, N 5 104) 5 28.0, p < .0001(with Yates correction).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
There were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores of experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.
“Moreover, there were no statistical differences among the grand poster scores for experts, discovery masters, and direct-instruction masters.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
Direct instruction is more effective than discovery learning in teaching children the control-of-variables strategy (CVS).
“We found not only that many more children learned from direct instruction than from discovery learning, but also that when asked to make broader, richer scientific judgments, the many children who learned about experimental design from direct instruction performed as well as those few children who discovered the method on their own.”
- Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
“direct instruction produced many more masters than did discovery learning.”
- Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
“these results replicate other studies in which direct instruction was clearly superior to discovery learning in facilitating children's acquisition of CVS”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Day 1: CVS Exploration and Assessment · plain
- Premisecitation
Direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.
“Chen and Klahr (1999) demonstrated that direct instruction on CVS led to statistically and educationally significant improvement in children's ability to design simple, unconfounded experiments.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
- Interpretationown data
The association between CVS mastery and poster-evaluation performance was independent of learning path.
“Children who became masters via direct instruction were as skilled at evaluating science-fair posters as were discovery-learning masters and experts.”
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
“In other words, the grand poster scores of the three groups that achieved high levels of CVS performance via different paths were indistinguishable.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
- Also stated in: § Day 2: Poster Evaluations · plain
- Premisecitation
Students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.
“Moreover, students receiving direct instruction were superior to control students on a far-transfer test of experimental design administered 7 months later.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
- Interpretationown data
These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.
“These results challenge predictions derived from the presumed superiority of discovery approaches in teaching young children basic procedures for early scientific investigations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Acquisition of CVS is an important step in the development of scientific reasoning skills because it provides a strong constraint on search in the space of experiments.
“Its acquisition is an important step in the development of scientific reasoning skills because it provides a strong constraint on search in the space of experiments (Klahr, 2000;Klahr & Simon, 1999).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
- May combine two claims. 6
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the study, CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased from 1.0 to 3.1 from exploration to assessment, while discovery-learning children increased from 0.6 to 1.5.
“CVS scores for direct-instruction children increased dramatically from exploration to assessment: from 1.0 to 3.1, t(51) 5 10.5, p < .0001,d 5 1.73 (see Fig. 3).Scores for children in the discovery condition also increased, but much less: from 0.6 to 1.5, t(51) 5 5.3, p < .0001,d 5 0.725.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe grand poster scores of the two nonmaster groups were indistinguishable from each other but significantly lower than those of the three high-CVS-score groups.
“The grand poster scores of the two groups who failed to master CVS were also indis-tinguishable, but significantly lower than the scores of the three high-CVS-score groups.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMost developmental and cognitive theories predict that many phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method.
“Finally, most developmental and cognitive theories predict that many of the phenomena associated with discovery learning would make it a relatively ineffective instructional method (Mayer, 2004).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mayer, 2004 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationTeacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective, particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own.
“Empirical challenges come from studies demonstrating that teacher-centered methods using direct instruction are highly effective (cf.Brophy & Good, 1986;Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986), particularly for teaching multistep procedures that students are unlikely to discover on their own, such as those involved in geometry, algebra, and computer programming (Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Brophy & Good, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Anderson, Corbett, Koedinger, & Pelletier, 1995 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives.
“CVS mastery is considered a central instructional objective from a wide variety of educational perspectives (DeBoer, 1991;Duschl, 1990;Murnane & Raizen, 1988;National Research Council, 1995).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites DeBoer, 1991
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Duschl, 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Murnane & Raizen, 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationFor children receiving direct instruction, mean CVS performance increased from 40% correct before instruction to 80% correct after instruction, whereas discovery-learning children showed no significant improvement.
“For children receiving direct instruction, mean performance on CVS increased in the psychology lab from 40% correct prior to instruction to 80% correct following instruction, whereas children in the discoverylearning condition showed no significant improvement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Chen and Klahr (1999) source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationChildren in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.
“For example, children in discovery situations are more likely than those receiving direct instruction to encounter inconsistent or misleading feedback, to make encoding errors and causal misattributions, and to experience inadequate practice and elaboration.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Mayer, 2004 source
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenChildren from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.
“Children from both grades at each school were randomly assigned to either the direct-instruction condition or the discovery-learning condition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenDuring the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.
“During the assessment phase, the experimenter did not provide any feedback in either condition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenIn both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.
“It is important to note that in our operationalization, the difference between direct instruction and discovery learning does not involve a difference between ''active'' and ''passive'' learning.In both conditions, students were actively engaged in the design of their experiments and the physical manipulation of the apparatus.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenA different experimenter, blind to training condition, asked all children to evaluate the two science-fair posters.
“A different experimenter (blind to training condition) asked all children to evaluate two science-fair posters”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Study design and conductown dataChildren's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders, with 83% agreement on what constituted a valid critique.
“Children's responses were transcribed from audiotape and coded independently by two coders.(There was 83% agreement between coders on what constituted a valid critique.)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThe order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.
“Children were assessed individually, and the order of poster presentation was counterbalanced.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The operationalized direct-instruction and discovery-learning conditions adequately represent the two instructional approaches despite the lack of a consistent definition of discovery learning.
“However, at the outset, we faced a difficult definitional problem because nearly 100 years of research (cf.Winch, 1913) had yet to produce a consistent definition of discovery learning.foot_0Therefore, we intentionally magnified the difference between the two instructional treatments in order to provide a strong test of the pathindependent transfer hypothesis.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The two science-fair posters used in the transfer task are highly imperfect and thus afford wide-ranging evaluations.
“An important feature of these posters is that they described highly imperfect experiments, thus affording opportunities for wide-ranging evaluations.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction.
“Discovery learning approaches typically do not have positive academic outcomes when compared with more traditional direct instruction (Klahr, 2004; Mayer, 2004).”
From Montessori education's impact on academic and nonacademic outcomes: A systematic review (2023) · cites this paper as Klahr, 2004
The Abstract reports that more third- and fourth-grade children learned the experimental-design procedure through direct instruction than through discovery learning. But the Discussion says discovery learning also produced significant, though smaller, gains; the study does not establish that discovery approaches typically lack positive academic outcomes across subjects or learners. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe work of Klahr and Nigam (2004) unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.
“The work of Klahr and Nigam (2004), discussed earlier, unambiguously demonstrated the advantages of direct instruction in science.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
The Abstract and Discussion report a clear advantage for direct instruction over discovery learning in teaching third- and fourth-grade children to design simple, unconfounded experiments. But the claim broadens that finding to science instruction generally: among children who mastered the skill, the two groups performed equally well on broader scientific judgments, and the Discussion calls for matching instructional approaches to topic and student. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDirect instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.
“Direct instruction involving considerable guidance, including examples, resulted in vastly more learning than discovery.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.
“Those relatively few students who learned via discovery showed no signs of superior quality of learning.”
From Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching (2006) · cites this paper as Klahr & Nigam, 2004
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“Klahr and Nigam (2004) directly tested this hypothesis with a group of third and fourth graders as they learned to design simple experiments in a science lesson.”
BackgroundSelf-citationTranslating the ICAP Theory of Cognitive Engagement Into Practice
Michelene, T. H., Adams, J., Bogusch, E. B., Bruchok, C., Kang, S., Lancaster, M. E., Levy, R., Li, N., McEldoon, K. L., Stump, G., et al. (2018) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/cogs.12626 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Schmidt, H. G., van der Molen, H. T., Winkel, W. T., & Wijnen, W. (2009) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520903213592 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
“Others maintain that PBL is a form of minimally guided instruction and is therefore less effective and less efficient than approaches that place a stronger emphasis on direct instruction of students ( Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006 ; Klahr & Nigam, 2004 ).”
BackgroundKlahr, D., Triona, L. M., & Williams, C. (2006) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20152 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
“For example , Cells A and B were compared in a series of investigations by Klahr and colleagues ( Chen & Klahr , 1999 ; Klahr & Nigam , 2004 ; Toth , Klahr , & Chen , 2000 ) using physical hands - on materials ( physical ramps , springs , and sinking objects ) .”
MethodSelf-citationWilson, C. D., Taylor, J. A., Kowalski, S. M., & Carlson, J. (2009) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20329 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Where science starts: Spontaneous experiments in preschoolers’ exploratory play
Cook, C., Goodman, N. D., & Schulz, L. (2011) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.03.003 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
“…experimental design, difficulty designing controlled interventions, and difficulty anticipating the type of evidence that would support or undermine causal hypotheses (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, 1989; Kuhn, Amsel, & O’Laughlin, 1988; Koslowski, 1996; Masnick & Klahr, 2003).”
Direct instruction vs. discovery: The long view
Dean Jr., D., & Kuhn, D. (2007) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20194 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Stull, A. T., & Mayer, R. E. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.808 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
“Activity theory is based on the idea that deep learning occurs when students are encouraged to engage in productive learning activities (de Jong, 2005; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Lillard, 2005; Mayer, 2003, 2004).”
BackgroundGureckis, T. M., & Markant, D. B. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612454304 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
The Psychology of Academic Achievement
Winne, P. H., & Nesbit, J. C. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100348 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
“However, when Klahr & Nigam (2004) randomly assigned elementary students to learn CVS by discovery or direct instruction, many more succeeded in the direct-instruction condition.”
BackgroundA rational account of pedagogical reasoning: Teaching by, and learning from, examples
Shafto, P., Goodman, N. D., & Griffiths, T. L. (2014) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2013.12.004 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2008) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701756420 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“…with learners’ cognitive activities in fruitful ways to enhance learning is in line with recent empirical findings which show that instructional support is indeed an important ingredient in constructivist learning environments (e.g., Hardy, Jonen, Möller, & Stern, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
ResultHospel, V., & Galand, B. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.001 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Blikstein, P. (2013) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/2460296.2460316 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Children balance theories and evidence in exploration, explanation, and learning
Bonawitz, E. B., van Schijndel, T. J. P., Friel, D., & Schulz, L. (2012) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cogpsych.2011.12.002 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Blikstein, P., Worsley, M. B., Piech, C., Sahami, M., Cooper, S., & Koller, D. (2014) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2014.954750 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
“Although this vision has captured the hearts and minds of educators since the turn of the 20th century, its need and feasibility has come under attack several times during the past decade (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundDifferentiated Overt Learning Activities for Effective Instruction in Engineering Classrooms
Menekşe, M., Stump, G. S., Krause, S., & Chi, M. T. H. (2013) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20021 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
“…et al., 2007; Smith, Sheppard, Johnson, & Johnson, 2005), other studies found either the opposite effect (e.g., Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Mayer, 2004; Montpas, 2004) or that active is not always better than passive (e.g., Colliver, 2000; Hundley, 2007, Martin, 2009;…”
MethodExplicit Instruction: Historical and Contemporary Contexts
Hughes, C. A., Morris, J. R., Therrien, W. J., & Benson, S. K. (2017) · Learning Disabilities Research & Practice · doi:10.1111/ldrp.12142 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
“…example, continuing to compare the effectiveness of explicit instruction with constructivist approaches such as discovery and inquiry learning (e.g., Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kroesbergen, Van Luit, & Maas, 2004) to ascertain if explicit instruction can be used in lieu of, or in concert with, these…”
BackgroundRönnebeck, S., Bernholt, S., & Ropohl, M. (2016) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2016.1206351 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Berthold, K., Eysink, T. H. S., & Renkl, A. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9051-z · Cited by 238 · see citing works
“Kirschner et al. (2006) and Klahr and Nigam (2004) advocate to provide the learners with more assistance relative to more open approaches (see Anderson et al. 1998).”
BackgroundFlexibility in problem solving: The case of equation solving
Star, J. R., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2007) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.09.018 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
“On the other hand, there is a large literature that suggests that direct instruction is more conducive toward learning than discovery (e.g., Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Rittle-Johnson, 2006; Zhu & Simon, 1987).”
BackgroundMethodSobel, D. M., & Kushnir, T. (2013) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0034191 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Pyatt, K., & Sims, R. (2011) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9291-6 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“For instance, inquiry-based learning can be difficult to implement (de Jong and van Joolingen 1998), and may not always yield positive learning gains (Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundIs Developing Scientific Thinking All About Learning to Control Variables?
Kuhn, D., & Dean, D. A. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01628.x · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Productive failure in learning the concept of variance
Kapur, M. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9209-6 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“…and DI, and in doing so, contribute to the ongoing debate comparing the effectiveness of DI with discovery learning approaches (e.g., Tobias and Duffy 2010); proponents of DI continue to epitomize discovery learning as the constructivist ideal (e.g., Kirschner et al. 2006; Klahr and Nigam 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialCarlone, H. B., Haun‐Frank, J., & Webb, A. W. (2011) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20413 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Jaakkola, T., Nurmi, S., & Veermans, K. (2010) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20386 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Beyond control of variables: What needs to develop to achieve skilled scientific thinking?
Kuhn, D., Iordanou, K., Dreibelbis, M. A. P., & Wirkala, C. (2008) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2008.09.006 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
What is Scientific Thinking and How Does It Develop?
Kuhn, D. (2002) · doi:10.1002/9780470996652.ch17 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Literature review: the role of the teacher in inquiry-based education
Dobber, M., Zwart, R., Tanis, M., & van Oers, B. (2017) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.09.002 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Is Direct Instruction an Answer to the Right Question?
Kuhn, D. (2007) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520701263376 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
‘Grasp of Practice’ as a Reasoning Resource for Inquiry and Nature of Science Understanding
Ford, M. (2006) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-006-9045-7 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Gobert, J. D., Sao Pedro, M., Raziuddin, J., & Baker, R. S. (2013) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2013.837391 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
“This is an advance over other assessments of the CVS, which counts trials as evidence of this skill if and only if the trials are collected sequentially (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; McElhaney & Linn, 2008, 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCairns, D., & Areepattamannil, S. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-017-9639-x · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Student Motivation from and Resistance to Active Learning Rooted in Essential Science Practices
Owens, D., Sadler, T. D., Barlow, A. T., & Smith-Walters, C. (2017) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-017-9688-1 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
The problem with answers: An exploration of guided scientific inquiry teaching
Furtak, E. M. (2006) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20130 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
What Needs to Develop in the Development of Inquiry Skills?
Kuhn, D., & Dreibelbis, M. A. P. (2008) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1080/07370000802391745 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“At one extreme, the inquiry process is regarded narrowly as a control-of-variables strategy that can be taught to students in a single brief session ( Klahr & Nigam, 2004 ); at the other, it is an activity so complex and evolving with practice as to defy simple characterization ( Lehrer & Schauble, 2006 ), with many o…”
BackgroundPlayful Learning and Montessori Education.
Lillard, A. S. (2013) · American journal of play · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Motivation and Transfer: The Role of Mastery-Approach Goals in Preparation for Future Learning
Belenky, D. M., & Nokes-Malach, T. J. (2012) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.651232 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Issues in computer supported inquiry learning in science
van Joolingen, W., de Jong, T., & Dimitrakopoulou, A. (2007) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00216.x · Cited by 190 · see citing works
“…given studies in which ‘free’ exploration, that is offering computer simulations without any support, has been shown not to benefit learners (Klahr & Nigam 2004; Mayer 2004), whereas supported discovery learning with simulations has been shown to be an effective mode of learning (White &…”
BackgroundExploring the Intersection of Science Education and 21st Century Skills: A Workshop Summary
Hilton, M. L. (2010) · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Lilienfeld, S. O., Ammirati, R. J., & David, M. (2011) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2011.09.006 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
“Yet most research suggests that although discovery learning approaches often have some role to play as adjunctive educational techniques, they are generally less effective in promoting learning of scientific and mathematical principles than are direct instruction approaches (Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundSavelsbergh, E. R., Prins, G. T., Rietbergen, C., Fechner, S., Vaessen, B. E., Draijer, J., & Bakker, A. (2016) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2016.07.003 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
“Moreover, critics have been concerned that such interest-oriented approaches will go at the cost of achievement outcomes (e.g., Kaminski, Sloutsky, & Heckler, 2008; Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
Let's talk evidence – The case for combining inquiry-based and direct instruction
de Jong, T., Lazonder, A. W., Chinn, C. A., Fischer, F., Gobert, J. D., Hmelo‐Silver, C. E., Koedinger, K. R., Krajcik, J. S., Kyza, E. Α., Linn, M. C., et al. (2023) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100536 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Drawing as a generative activity and drawing as a prognostic activity.
Schwamborn, A., Mayer, R. E., Thillmann, H., Leopold, C., & Leutner, D. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019640 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Explicit teaching of meta-strategic knowledge in authentic classroom situations
Zohar, A. E., & David, A. B. (2008) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-007-9019-4 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
“Therefore, the present study addresses similar issues to the ones addressed by Klahr and Nigam (2004) and by Dean and Kuhn (2007) adding a new aspect to their ongoing discussion because according to our findings the effects of explicit teaching did indeed foster a long-term and transferable effect.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialScientific Thinking and Reasoning
Dunbar, K. N., & Klahr, D. (2012) · The Oxford Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199734689.013.0035 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Self-citationA review of the types of mobile activities in mobile inquiry-based learning
Suárez, Á., Specht, M. M., Prinsen, F., Kalz, M., & Ternier, S. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.11.004 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Exploring mathematics problems prepares children to learn from instruction
DeCaro, M. S., & Rittle‐Johnson, B. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.06.009 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Exploration, Explanation, and Parent–Child Interaction in Museums
Callanan, M. A., Legare, C. H., Sobel, D. M., Jaeger, G., Letourneau, S. M., McHugh, S. R., Willard, A. K., Brinkman, A. H., Finiasz, Z., Rubio, É., et al. (2020) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12412 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
The worked example effect, the generation effect, and element interactivity.
Chen, O., Kalyuga, S., & Sweller, J. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000018 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Illusions of causality: how they bias our everyday thinking and how they could be reduced
Matute, H., Blanco, F., Yarritu, I., Díaz‐Lago, M., Vadillo, M. A., & Barberia, I. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00888 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“There has been a long debate in scientific education on whether students learn better through personal discovery or through more traditional instruction, but recent reports are showing that to learn about scientific methods, direct instruction is preferred (e.g., Klahr and Nigam, 2004).”
BackgroundIs it better to select or to receive? Learning via active and passive hypothesis testing.
Markant, D. B., & Gureckis, T. M. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0032108 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Teaching the control-of-variables strategy: A meta-analysis
Schwichow, M., Croker, S. J., Zimmerman, C., Höffler, T. N., & Härtig, H. (2015) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2015.12.001 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“…questions include, for example, whether particular types of instruction are more effective (Chen & Klahr, 1999; Dean & Kuhn, 2007; Klahr, 2005; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Kuhn, 2005b; Kuhn & Dean, 2005), and whether hands-on activities and virtual training tasks are equally effective in teaching…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialScientific Thinking and Science Literacy
Lehrer, R., & Schauble, L. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0405 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
The effects of explicit teaching of metastrategic knowledge on low- and high-achieving students
Zohar, A. E., & Peled, B. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.07.001 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The Second Decade: What Develops (and How)
Kuhn, D., & Franklin, S. (2007) · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0222 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
What is Scientific Thinking and How Does it Develop?
Kuhn, D. (2010) · doi:10.1002/9781444325485.ch19 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Loibl, K., & Rummel, N. (2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-013-9282-5 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Nordine, J., Krajcik, J. S., & Fortus, D. (2010) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20423 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Furthermore, instructional interventions seem to play a key role in developing understandings in young children that many adults never acquire (Duschl et al., 2007; Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Linn, Lee, Tinker, Husic, & Chiu, 2006; Smith, Maclin, Houghton, & Hennessey, 2000; White & Frederiksen, 1998).”
BackgroundWhat Is Inquiry-Based Science Teaching and Learning?
Constantinou, C. P., Tsivitanidou, O., & Rybska, E. (2018) · Contributions from science education research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91406-0_1 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., & Bransford, J. D. (2012) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2012.696317 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“This differs from prior studies that have found an advantage for T&P instruction compared to unscaffolded exploration (Klahr & Nigam, 2004; Tuovinen & Sweller, 1999).”
BackgroundResultUnderstanding Students' Experiments—What kind of support do they need in inquiry tasks?
Arnold, J. C., Kremer, K., & Mayer, J. (2014) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2014.930209 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
“While some studies found positive effects of open inquiry or problembased learning (e.g. Dochy, Segers, Van den Bossche, & Gijbels, 2003; Roth & Roychoudhury, 1993; Sadeh & Zion, 2009), others found negative effects in comparison to direct instruction (e.g. Chen & Klahr, 1999; Klahr & Nigam, 2004).”
ResultMayer, D., Sodian, B., Koerber, S., & Schwippert, K. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.07.005 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Explain This, Explore That: A Study of Parent–Child Interaction in a Children's Museum
Willard, A. K., Busch, J. T. A., Cullum, K. A., Letourneau, S. M., Sobel, D. M., Callanan, M. A., & Legare, C. H. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13232 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“For example, Klahr and Nigam (2004) showed that, compared to self-directed exploratory learning, direct instruction (i.e., generating explanations) was more effective in helping fourth-graders learn about scientific methods and make broader scientific judgments.”
BackgroundStudent Learning: What Has Instruction Got to Do With It?
Lee, H. S., & Anderson, J. R. (2012) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143833 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Instructional effects on critical thinking: Performance on ill-defined issues
Angeli, C., & Valanides, N. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.06.010 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Improving self-regulated learning with a retrieval practice intervention.
Ariel, R., & Karpicke, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/xap0000133 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
The NISPI framework: Analysing collaborative problem-solving from students' physical interactions
Cukurova, M., Luckin, R., Millán, E., & Mavrikis, M. (2017) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2017.08.007 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“However, existing evidence on the effectiveness of these methods to satisfy their learning outcomes is rare (Klahr & Nigam, 2004), and they have been harshly criticised by some researchers as not being effective pedagogical approaches (Kirschner et al., 2006; Mayer, 2004).”
BackgroundOliver, M., McConney, A. A., & Woods‐McConney, A. (2019) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-019-09901-0 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“This finding is consistent with similar research reported by Klahr and Nigam (2004) almost 15 years ago.”
ResultEvaluating metacognitive scaffolding in Guided Invention Activities
Roll, I., Holmes, N. G., Day, J., & Bonn, D. A. (2012) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-012-9208-7 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Beyond “formative”: assessments to enrich student learning
Kulasegaram, K. M., & Rangachari, P. K. (2018) · AJP Advances in Physiology Education · doi:10.1152/advan.00122.2017 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
- Authors
- Klahr, D., & Nigam, M.
- Affiliations
- Carnegie Mellon University (US)
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2004-10
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 661-667
- ISSN
- 0956-7976 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-9280
- OpenAlex
- W2139559367
- Cited by
- 914
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 56 · 2015: 46 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 100.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Science Education and Pedagogy
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- discovery learning, direct instruction, early childhood science education, elementary school students, experimental design, transfer of learning, scientific reasoning, learning trajectories
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Child, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Science, Teaching
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