Cited by 661Motivation and Self-Concept in SportsPsychometric Methodologies and TestingPsychological Testing and Assessment

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Development and Initial Validation of a Measure of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in Exercise: The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale

Vlachopoulos, Symeon P., Michailidou, Sotiria·2006·Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science

DOI 10.1207/s15327841mpee1003_4

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Abstract

The development process and initial validation of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES) are presented in this study. The BPNES is a domain-specific self-report instrument designed to assess perceptions of the extent to which the innate needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2000) are satisfied in exercise. Two separate samples of 508 and 504 participants were employed from private fitness centers for scale calibration and validation purposes, respectively. The results demonstrated an adequate factor structure, internal consistency, generalizability of the factor dimensionality across the calibration and the validation samples, discriminant validity and predictive validity; acceptable stability of the BPNES scores over 4 weeks also was found. In addition, the scale scores were found to be largely unaffected by socially desirable responding and specifically the tendency for impression management.

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Effects of a Motivational Climate on Psychological Needs Satisfaction, Motivation and Commitment in Teen Handball Players
Alesi, M., López, M. G., Borrego, C. C., Monteiro, D., & Granero‐Gallegos, A. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16152702 · Cited by 79
“The Spanish version of the BPNES was used [50].”
Background
Motivation and anxiety for dental treatment: Testing a self-determination theory model of oral self-care behaviour and dental clinic attendance
Halvari, A. E. M., Halvari, H., Bjørnebekk, G., & Deci, E. L. (2010) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-010-9154-0 · Cited by 78
“Dental anxiety is often associated with anticipated pain (Kleinknecht and Bernstein 1978; Wardle 1982) and the need for more invasive treatment when patients have to attend the dentist (Milgrom et al. 1995).”
Background
The role of task and ego-oriented climate in explaining students’ bright and dark motivational experiences in Physical Education
García‐González, L., Sevil‐Serrano, J., Abós, Á., Aelterman, N., & Haerens, L. L. (2019) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2019.1592145 · Cited by 91
“Basic psychological need satisfaction The Spanish version (Moreno et al. 2008) of the Basic Psychological Need in Exercise Scale (BPNES; Vlachopoulos and Michailidou 2006) was used to assess students’ experienced need satisfaction in PE.”
Method
The Effect of Online Customization on Consumers’ Happiness and Purchase Intention and the Mediating Roles of Autonomy, Competence, and Pride of Authorship
Kim, H. Y., & Lee, Y. (2019) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2019.1658375 · Cited by 65
“® Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006; Bandura, 1980 Competence (C) C1: I felt a sense of accomplishment while running the customization program C2: I think I have done a great job of customizing the program.”
Background
The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale: Measurement Invariance Over Gender
Vlachopoulos, S. P. (2008) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705510701758398 · Cited by 71
“The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES: Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006) is a self-report measure designed to assess the extent to which the innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are fulfilled in exercise.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Complementing the Self-Determination Theory With the Need for Novelty: Motivation and Intention to Be Physically Active in Physical Education Students
Fernández-Espínola, C., Almagro, B. J., Tamayo-Fajardo, J. A., & Buñuel, P. S.-L. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01535 · Cited by 96
Motivation for physical activity in young adults with physical disabilities during a rehabilitation stay: a longitudinal test of self‐determination theory
Sæbu, M., Sørensen, M., & Halvari, H. (2013) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2013.01042.x · Cited by 73
Self-determined motivation predicts independent, home-based exercise following cardiac rehabilitation.
Russell, K. L., & Bray, S. R. (2009) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015595 · Cited by 77
Motivation, Discipline, and Academic Performance in Physical Education: A Holistic Approach From Achievement Goal and Self-Determination Theories
Rabaz, F. C., Martínez-Aranda, L. M., Conejero, M., & Gil-Arias, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01808 · Cited by 81
How does physical activity improve adolescent resilience? Serial indirect effects via self-efficacy and basic psychological needs
Li, X., Wang, J., Yu, H., Liu, Y., Xu, X., Lin, J., & Yang, N. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.17059 · Cited by 75
“The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES), developed by Vlachopoulos & Michailidou (2006) , was used to assess basic psychological needs.”
Method
Lifestyle intervention to improve quality of life and prevent weight gain after renal transplantation: Design of the Active Care after Transplantation (ACT) randomized controlled trial
Klaassen, G., Zelle, D. M., Navis, G. J., Dijkema, D., Bemelman, F. J., Bakker, S. J. L., & Corpeleijn, E. (2017) · BMC Nephrology · doi:10.1186/s12882-017-0709-0 · Cited by 64
“Autonomy, competence, relatedness in exercise Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES [50])* T3, T6, T15”
BackgroundMethod
The effects of gamification on the motivation and basic psychological needs of secondary school physical education students
Sotos-Martínez, V. J., Férriz-Valero, A., Martínez, S. G., & Tortosa‐Martínez, J. (2022) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2022.2039611 · Cited by 108
“The Spanish version of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES) (Vlachopoulos and Michailidou 2006), adapted to the context of PE (Murcia et al. 2008) was used.”
The Effects of a Physical Education Intervention to Support the Satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs on the Motivation and Intentions to Be Physically Active
Álvarez, E. F., & López, J. C. (2017) · Journal of Human Kinetics · doi:10.1515/hukin-2017-0143 · Cited by 60
“The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES; Vlachopoulos and Michailidou, 2006), adapted for a Spanish context (Sánchez and Núñez, 2007), was used to measure the satisfaction of basic psychological needs.”
Method
Initial Validity Evidence for the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 Among Greek Exercise Participants
Moustaka, F. C., Vlachopoulos, S. P., Vazou, S., Kaperoni, M., & Markland, D. A. (2010) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000036 · Cited by 60
“The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES; Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006) was used to assess the degree to which the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are fulfilled during exercise.”
MethodSelf-citation
Motivation and Exercise Dependence
González‐Cutre, D., & Sicilia, Á. (2012) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2012.10599863 · Cited by 59
“Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES).”
Method
Interpersonal autonomy support style and its consequences in physical education classes
Fin, G., Murcia, J. A. M., León, J., Baretta, E., & Júnior, R. J. N. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216609 · Cited by 71
Youth sport dropout according to the Process-Person-Context-Time model: a systematic review
Moulds, K., Galloway, S., Abbott, S., & Cobley, S. P. (2022) · International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1750984x.2021.2012817 · Cited by 71
Perceived Effort in Football Athletes: The Role of Achievement Goal Theory and Self-Determination Theory
Monteiro, D., Teixeira, D., Travassos, B. F. R., Duarte‐Mendes, P., Moutão, J. M. R. P., Machado, S. E. D. C., & Cid, L. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01575 · Cited by 77
Examining user engagement and use of fitness tracking technology through the lens of technology affordances
Zhou, X., Krishnan, A., & Dincelli, E. (2021) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.1915383 · Cited by 56
Effect of a Multi-Dimensional Intervention Programme on the Motivation of Physical Education Students
Alonso, D. A., Álvarez, F. D. V., Marcos, F. M. L., Sánchez‐Oliva, D., Miguel, P. A. S., & García‐Calvo, T. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0085275 · Cited by 70
Relations among basic psychological needs, PE-motivation and fundamental movement skills in 9–12-year-old boys and girls in Physical Education
van Aart, I., Hartman, E. E., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Mombarg, R., & Visscher, C. (2015) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2015.1112776 · Cited by 57
“This phase was necessary because the existing instrumentation was only used and validated in adolescent and adult populations in other countries (Aelterman et al. 2012; Vlachopoulos and Michailidou 2006; Wilson et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The influence of nudge transparency on the experience of autonomy
Wachner, J., Adriaanse, M. A., & de Ridder, D. T. D. (2020) · Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/23743603.2020.1808782 · Cited by 54
Validation of the Achievement Emotions Questionnaire for Physical Education (AEQ-PE)
Fierro-Suero, S., Almagro, B. J., & Buñuel, P. S.-L. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17124560 · Cited by 53
“The Spanish version, adapted to PE [53], of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale [54], including items to measure novelty [18,55], was used.”
Method
Effects of three training types on vitality among older adults: A self-determination theory perspective
Solberg, P. A., Hopkins, W. G., Ommundsen, Y., & Halvari, H. (2012) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.01.006 · Cited by 59
A school-based motivational intervention to promote physical activity from a self-determination theory perspective
González‐Cutre, D., Sierra, A. C., Beltrán‐Carrillo, V. J., Pelaez-Perez, M. A., & Cervelló, E. M. (2016) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2016.1255871 · Cited by 71
“We used the Spanish version (Moreno, González-Cutre, Chillón, & Parra, 2008; Sánchez & Núñez, 2007) of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES) of Vlachopoulos and Michailidou (2006).”
PREHAB study: a protocol for a prospective randomised clinical trial of exercise therapy for people living with frailty having cancer surgery
McIsaac, D. I., Saunders, C., Hladkowicz, E., Bryson, G. L., Forster, A. J., Gagné, S., Huang, A. R., Lalu, M. M., Lavallée, L. T., Moloo, H., et al. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-022057 · Cited by 51
“A subset of questions taken from the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise scale will be used to measure participants’ competence and autonomy felt in relation to their participation in the exercise prehabilitation programme.(35) We will conduct semistructured interviews using an interview guide informed by the Theore…”
Method
SELF DETERMINATION THEORY AND THE WINE CLUB ATTRIBUTE FORMATION PROCESS
White, C. J., & Thompson, M. (2009) · Annals of Tourism Research · doi:10.1016/j.annals.2009.04.001 · Cited by 56
Should We Be Looking at the Forest or the Trees? Overall Psychological Need Satisfaction and Individual Needs as Predictors of Physical Activity
Brunet, J., Gunnell, K. E., Teixeira, P., Sabiston, C. M., & Bélanger, M. (2016) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.2016-0256 · Cited by 50
“It should be noted, though, that consistent with previous findings (Edmunds et al., 2006; McDonough & Crocker, 2007; Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006), autonomy need satisfaction was not uniquely associated with Time 1 or Time 2 MVPA participation.”
BackgroundResult
Exercising with Passion: Initial Validation of the Passion Scale in Exercise
Parastatidou, I. S., Doganis, G., Theodorakis, Y., & Vlachopoulos, S. P. (2012) · Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science · doi:10.1080/1091367x.2012.657561 · Cited by 55
“Vlachopoulos and Michailidou (2006) reported sufficient Cronbach’s alpha values for autonomy (α = .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
What keeps athletes in the gym? Goals, psychological needs, and motivation of CrossFit™ participants
Sibley, B. A., & Bergman, S. M. (2017) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2017.1280835 · Cited by 71
“Five studies were located (Edmunds et al., 2006; Gunnell et al., 2013; Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006; Wilson, Mack, Blanchard, & Gray, 2009; Wilson, Rodgers, Blanchard, & Gessell, 2003) and Cohen’s d values compared to the utilised scales’ midpoints were calculated for autonomy, competence, and…”
Method
Impact of a Sustained TPSR Program on Students’ Responsibility, Motivation, Sportsmanship, and Intention To Be Physically Active
Merino-Barrero, J. A., Valenzuela, A. V., Belando‐Pedreño, N., & Fernández‐Río, J. (2019) · Journal of Teaching in Physical Education · doi:10.1123/jtpe.2019-0022 · Cited by 50
Can a Hybrid Sport Education/Teaching Games for Understanding Volleyball Unit Be More Effective in Less Motivated Students? An Examination into a Set of Motivation-Related Variables
García‐González, L., Abós, Á., Diloy-Peña, S., Gil-Arias, A., & Sevil‐Serrano, J. (2020) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su12156170 · Cited by 60
“The Spanish version adapted to the PE context [41] of the Basic Psychological Need in Exercise Scale (BPNES) [42], was used to measure the students’ perceptions of BPN satisfaction in PE lessons.”
Method
The Relatedness to Others in Physical Activity Scale: Evidence for Structural and Criterion Validity
Wilson, P. M., & Bengoechea, E. G. (2010) · Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9861.2010.00052.x · Cited by 52
“While an item reduction approach is not uncommon within the physical activity literature when developing instruments using BPNT (e.g., Vlachopoulus & Michailidou, 2006 discarded 61.29% of their original items), such an approach calls into question two aspects of content validity that remain…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Impact of a motivational resistance-training programme on adherence and body composition in the elderly
Marcos-Pardo, P. J., Martínez‐Rodríguez, A., & Gil-Arias, A. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-19764-6 · Cited by 54
Basic psychological needs, exercise intention and sport commitment as predictors of recreational sport participants’ exercise adherence
Kang, S., Lee, K., & Kwon, S. (2019) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2019.1699089 · Cited by 49
“…by modifying and supplementing the generic basic psychological needs scale used by Deci and Ryan (1985) and Vallerand and Rousseau (2001) among others and the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale developed by Vlachopoulos and Michailidou (2006), after considering Korea-specific situations.”
Method
Effects of school-based interventions on motivation towards physical activity in children and adolescents: protocol for a systematic review
Demetriou, Y., Reimers, A. K., Alesi, M., Scifo, L., Borrego, C. C., Monteiro, D., & Kelso, A. (2019) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-019-1029-1 · Cited by 48
Development of the Measure of Experiential Aspects of Participation for People With Physical Disabilities
Caron, J. G., Ginis, K. A. M., Rocchi, M., & Sweet, S. N. (2018) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2018.08.183 · Cited by 60
The relationship between basic psychological need satisfaction, behavioral regulation, and Participation in CrossFit
Davies, M., Coleman, L., & Stellino, M. B. (2016) · Scholarly Commons (University of the Pacific) · Cited by 47
Implementation of a Hybrid Educational Program between the Model of Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) and the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) in Physical Education and Its Effects on Health: An Approach Based on Mixed Methods
García-Castejón, G., Foguet, O. C., Balcells, M. C., Manzano-Sánchez, D., Jiménez-Parra, J. F., & Valenzuela, A. V. (2021) · Children · doi:10.3390/children8070573 · Cited by 73
“A version of the Spanish test validated for the educational context [65] was used, based on the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale [66].”
Method
Validation of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale in a Portuguese Sample
Moutão, J. M. R. P., Cid, L., Alves, J. A. M., Leitão, J. C., & Vlachopoulos, S. P. (2012) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5209/rev_sjop.2012.v15.n1.37346 · Cited by 46
“Several studies have supported the reliability and validity of BPNES responses among Greek exercise participants (Vlachopoulos, 2007, 2008; Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006; Vlachopoulos & Neikou, 2007), English exercise participants (Vlachopoulos, Ntoumanis, & Smith, 2010) and Spanish exercise…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Predicting healthy and unhealthy behaviors through physical education: A self‐determination theory‐based longitudinal approach
Ferriz, R., González‐Cutre, D., Sicilia, Á., & Hagger, M. S. (2015) · Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports · doi:10.1111/sms.12470 · Cited by 46
“Satisfaction of basic psychological needs in PE The adapted Spanish version (Moreno et al., 2008) of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006) was used.”
Method
Putting the ‘we’ into workout: The association of identity leadership with exercise class attendance and effort, and the mediating role of group identification and comfort
Steffens, N. K., Slade, E. L., Stevens, M. R., Haslam, S. A., & Rees, T. (2019) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101544 · Cited by 52
Predicting Perceived Sport Performance via Self-Determination Theory
Lourenço, J., Almagro, B. J., Carmona, J., & Buñuel, P. S.-L. (2022) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.1177/00315125221119121 · Cited by 59
“To measure basic psychological needs, we used the Portuguese version (BPNESp, Moutão, Cid, Leitão, Alves, et al., 2012) of the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006).”
Method

Authors: Vlachopoulos, S. P., & Michailidou, S.
Affiliations: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR)
ORCID: Vlachopoulos, Symeon P.
Venue: Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science
Publisher: Informa UK Limited
Published: 2006-09
Volume: 10
Issue: 3
Pages: 179-201
ISSN: 1091-367X (ISSN-L)
1532-7841
DOI: 10.1207/s15327841mpee1003_4
OpenAlex: W1998733243
Cited by: 661
References: 57
Citations by year: 2026: 40 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 31 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 26
FWCI: 8.64
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: autonomy, competence, relatedness, self-determination theory, exercise motivation, scale development, psychometric validation, impression management, social desirability bias

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Development and Initial Validation of a Measure of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness in Exercise: The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale

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