Self-Esteem and Socioeconomic Status: A Meta-Analytic Review
Abstract
Socioeconomic status (SES) has a small but significantrelationship with self-esteem (d = .15, r = .08) in a meta-analysis of 446 samples (total participant N = 312,940). Higher SES individuals report higher self-esteem. The effect size is very small in young children, increases substantially during young adulthood, continues higher until middle age, and is then smaller for adults over the age of 60. Gender interacts with birth cohort: The effect size increased over time for women but decreased over time for men. Asians and Asian Americans show a higher effect size, and occupation and education produce higher correlations with self-esteem than income does. The results are most consistent with a social indicator or salience model.
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Experiences of status, including socioeconomic status and being assigned the role of supervisor, predict higher self-esteem.
“In addition, experiences of status including socioeconomic status (Twenge & Campbell, 2002) and being assigned the role of supervisors (Wojciszke & Struzynska-Kujalowicz, 2007) were found to predict higher self-esteem.”
From Self‐esteem development and life events: A review and integrative process framework (2022) · cites this paper as Twenge & Campbell, 2002
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- Authors
- Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K.
- Affiliations
- San Diego State University (US)
- University of Georgia (US)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2002-02
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 59-71
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2056581333
- Cited by
- 573
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 25 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 7.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social Power and Status Dynamics
- Keywords
- self-esteem, socioeconomic status, social indicators, salience model, birth cohort differences, gender differences, age differences, income, occupation, Asian Americans, young children
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