The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 17 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Cognition assessment using the NIH Toolbox
Open accessAbstract
Cognition is 1 of 4 domains measured by the NIH Toolbox for the Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function (NIH-TB), and complements modules testing motor function, sensation, and emotion. On the basis of expert panels, the cognition subdomains identified as most important for health, success in school and work, and independence in daily functioning were Executive Function, Episodic Memory, Language, Processing Speed, Working Memory, and Attention. Seven measures were designed to tap constructs within these subdomains. The instruments were validated in English, in a sample of 476 participants ranging in age from 3 to 85 years, with representation from both sexes, 3 racial/ethnic categories, and 3 levels of education. This report describes the development of the Cognition Battery and presents results on test-retest reliability, age effects on performance, and convergent and discriminant construct validity. The NIH-TB Cognition Battery is intended to serve as a brief, convenient set of measures to supplement other outcome measures in epidemiologic and longitudinal research and clinical trials. With a computerized format and national standardization, this battery will provide a "common currency" among researchers for comparisons across a wide range of studies and populations.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery is a brief, computerized set of 7 measures covering 6 cognitive subdomains for ages 3–85, validated in 476 participants. It showed good-to-excellent test-retest reliability, expected age associations, and convergent/discriminant validity against gold-standard measures.
Key findings
- Test-retest reliability was strong: intraclass correlations for the entire sample ranged from 0.78 for the Picture Sequence Memory Test to 0.99 for the Oral Reading Recognition Test, with most other values above 0.90.
- Age associations were robust in children (ages 3–15; r = 0.58–0.87) and negative for most nonlanguage measures in adults (ages 20–85; r = −0.46 to −0.65); language measures showed little adult decline (Vocabulary r = 0.15; Reading r = −0.02).
- Convergent validity for ages 8–85 ranged from r = 0.48 to 0.93 (all p < 0.0001), while discriminant validity correlations ranged from r = 0.05 to 0.30.
- In children ages 3–6, all battery measures correlated with a general cognitive ability composite at r = 0.54 to 0.74.
Methods
- Subdomains were selected through expert surveys and panels (N = 102 experts); the battery includes Flanker, Dimensional Change Card Sort, List Sorting Working Memory, Picture Sequence Memory, Oral Reading Recognition, Picture Vocabulary, and Pattern Comparison Processing Speed tests.
- Validation sample: N = 476 community-dwelling participants ages 3–85, stratified by age, education, and race/ethnicity, recruited at Northwestern University and 5 additional sites; not all ages were sampled. One-third was randomly selected for retest 7–21 days later.
- Analyses included Pearson correlations between age and test performance separately for children and adults, intraclass correlations for test-retest reliability, and correlations with gold-standard measures for convergent and discriminant validity; for ages 3–6, only convergent validity with a general cognitive ability composite was assessed.
Limitations
- The paper states the battery was not developed as a clinical measure to screen for cognitive impairment or substitute for a full neuropsychological evaluation; future clinical-population studies are expected to provide additional validation.
- The paper states the validation sample was not population-based and participants tended to be highly educated, especially in the youngest and oldest groups; a more representative sampling strategy was used for the later NIH-TB norming study.
- The paper states gold-standard measures were scarce for ages 3–6, and no well-established measures were identified for attention, episodic memory, EF, and processing speed in that age group, so only convergent validity with general cognitive ability was measured.
- Evident from the text: age effects are cross-sectional correlations, so developmental and aging trajectories are inferred rather than directly observed longitudinally; test-retest reliability was assessed in only one-third of the sample.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Claims the paper makes
20 Own result · 10 Sources not found · 8 Own method · 5 Own interpretation · 5 No basis given
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The nonlanguage subdomain tests in the battery, in contrast, conformed to the pattern expected with cognitive ability measures in that they peaked in early adulthood and then declined in later adulthood at different rates, depending on the measure.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many (57%) also listed a “Global Score” as important.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The expert panel rankings and self-reported familiarity of experts provide a valid basis for identifying the most important cognitive subdomains for health, school/work success, and independence.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In children from 3 to 6 years of age, all NIH-TB Cognition Battery measures were significantly correlated (ranging from r 5 0.54 to r 5 0.74) with our measure of general cognitive ability (“g”), indicating that they are sensitive to a range of different cognitive ability levels within this age cohort.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the basis of expert panels, the cognition subdomains identified as most important for health, success in school and work, and independence in daily functioning were Executive Function, Episodic Memory, Language, Processing Speed, Working Memory, and Attention.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The expert panel rankings and self-reported familiarity of experts provide a valid basis for identifying the most important cognitive subdomains for health, school/work success, and independence.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With the exception of the language measures (Vocabulary and Reading, r 5 0.15 and 20.02, respectively), age and test scores (r 5 20.46 to 20.65) on the remaining NIH-TB Cognition Battery measures were negatively associated, with lower scores at higher age levels.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For all NIH-TB CB instruments, correlations for convergent validity measures ranged from r 5 0.48 to r 5 0.93 (all p , 0.0001), suggesting that the NIH-TB measures are tapping the desired constructs.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not surprisingly, Reading showed an especially steep improvement from age 3 to the early school years, when both formal and informal educational experiences ideally promote such development.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Reading and Vocabulary scores showed the expected associations with age, growing through adolescence and stabilizing in older adulthood.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(B) Results for NIH Toolbox Reading and Vocabulary scores (reported as a”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The correlations between the NIH-TB measures and general cognitive ability, our index of convergent validity in young children (ages 3-6 years), were high (0.54-0.74), possibly supporting such a notion.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 21
- Probably not a substantial claim. 12
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“(A) NIH Toolbox Picture Sequence Memory Test scores show improvement into early adulthood and then decline from the 50s on.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Language subdomain tests, as expected, are experience-based and peaked somewhat later than measures of other cognitive subdomains, and then remained relatively stable even into the ninth decade of life.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Test-retest reliability was strong for the entire sample and separately for children (ages 3-15 years) and adults (ages 20-85 years; table 3).”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The gold standard tests are valid measures of the intended cognitive constructs.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas Oral Reading Recognition showed a much sharper increase until early grade-school years (age 7-8) and then followed the same pattern of more gradual improvement and then stability in the older age groups (figure , B).”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Intraclass correlation coefficients for the entire sample on the NIH Toolbox measures ranged from 0.78 for the Picture Sequence Memory Test to 0.99 on the Oral Reading Recognition Test, with most other values falling above 0.90.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All NIH-TB Cognition Battery measures showed robust associations between test performance and age in the child group (r 5 0.58-0.87),where scores improved with age.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the participants in this study (or their parents, in the case of children) tended to be rather highly educated, particularly in the youngest and oldest groups (see table 1).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data are presented for 208 normal children (age 3-15 years) and 268 normal adults (age 20-85 years) on 3 important psychometric characteristics: test-retest reliability, sensitivity to cognitive growth during childhood and age-related decline during adulthood, and construct validity.”
plaincorrelationaln = 208 ·- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, on the Picture Sequence Memory Test, performance improved during childhood and early adolescence, with gradual decline in scores across adult age ranges beginning in the 30s (figure , A).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 2 top-ranked subdomains were Executive Function (EF) (95%) and Episodic Memory (93%), followed by Language (55%), Processing Speed (52%), and Attention (50%).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The expert panel rankings and self-reported familiarity of experts provide a valid basis for identifying the most important cognitive subdomains for health, school/work success, and independence.
In the paper
“Language scores can predict occupational attainment and performance.29”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [29]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The instruments were validated in English, in a sample of 476 participants ranging in age from 3 to 85 years, with representation from both sexes, 3 racial/ethnic categories, and 3 levels of education.”
plainn = 476- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The validation sample of 476 community-dwelling individuals is adequate for drawing conclusions about the Cognition Battery's validity across the 3-85 age range.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Language subdomain tests, as expected, are experience-based and peaked somewhat later than measures of other cognitive subdomains, and then remained relatively stable even into the ninth decade of life.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Cognition Battery has 7 computerized instruments that measure 6 ability subdomains important for cognitive health from the ages of 3 to 85 years.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One-third of the sample was randomly selected to repeat testing 7 to 21 days later to assess test-retest reliability.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“PS measures are among the most sensitive indicators of cerebral dysfunction, 41 and slowed PS has been demonstrated in traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, Parkinson disease, symptomatic HIV, chronic fatigue syndrome, dementia, and schizophrenia.42”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [42]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The subject sample for this study deliberately emphasized representation of ethnic minorities (almost 50%) and the oldest and youngest groups (3-6 years and 65-85 years; together, 48%) to ensure that the tests would perform as needed in these important segments of the population.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The validation sample of 476 community-dwelling individuals is adequate for drawing conclusions about the Cognition Battery's validity across the 3-85 age range.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Vocabulary represents the lexical component of language and is highly associated with general measures of “crystallized intelligence,” or “g c ,” 33 overall cognitive functioning, and success in school and work.29,34”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [29]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“WM improves significantly as children develop and WM span is thought to double in capacity between the ages of 5 and 10. 20”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Age associations reflect the validity of the tests for measuring cognitive development during childhood and age-related cognitive decline during adulthood.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in test performance reflect developmental growth during childhood and aging-related decline during adulthood.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“EF is very vulnerable to aging, 4 and comparisons across the lifespan yield an inverted U-shaped pattern, with early age-related improvement followed by later age-related decline.5”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [5]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gold standard measures were scarce for 3-to 6-year-olds, and we were unable to identify well-established measures to test convergent or discriminant validity in this age group for the measures of attention, episodic memory, EF, and PS.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“It is one of the first cognitive functions to show age-related decline and the most susceptible to developmental disorders, 25 brain trauma, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer disease.26”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [26]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The NIH-TB Cognition Battery was not developed as a clinical measure to either screen for cognitive impairment or to substitute for a full, competent neuropsychological evaluation.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The lack of such measures may reflect the fact that different subdomains of cognition become more differentiated with experience and development.55”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [55]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The sample (N 5 476) was based on a stratification plan to include adequate numbers of individuals within age bands, level of education, and racial/ethnic backgrounds.”
plainn = 476- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: The validation sample of 476 community-dwelling individuals is adequate for drawing conclusions about the Cognition Battery's validity across the 3-85 age range.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Single-word reading recognition tasks are strong predictors of health and cognitive outcomes across the lifespan, and performance on these tasks is also an estimate of the quality of education, accounting for some of the racial/ethnic differences on neuropsychological test performance seen in older adults.31,32”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [31]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [32]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Based on factor-analytic work, there is an emerging consensus that EF can be divided into 3 partially independent subcomponents: set shifting, inhibitory control, and updating/working memory.6”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [6]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper relies on this without support.
The expert panel rankings and self-reported familiarity of experts provide a valid basis for identifying the most important cognitive subdomains for health, school/work success, and independence.
“On the basis of expert panels, the cognition subdomains identified as most important for health, success in school and work, and independence in daily functioning were Executive Function, Episodic Memory, Language, Processing Speed, Working Memory, and Attention.”
“Information was requested from experts (N 5 102) who reported sufficient familiarity with cognition to make recommendations for specific subdomains of importance.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional age differences in test performance reflect developmental growth during childhood and aging-related decline during adulthood.
“Age associations reflect the validity of the tests for measuring cognitive development during childhood and age-related cognitive decline during adulthood.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The gold standard measures used for convergent and discriminant validity are valid criterion measures of the intended constructs.
“Convergent validity was assessed by correlations between each NIH-TB measure and a well-established “gold standard” measure of the same construct; evidence of discriminant validity was assessed by correlations with gold standards of a different cognitive construct.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The validation sample of 476 community-dwelling individuals is adequate for drawing conclusions about the Cognition Battery's validity across the 3-85 age range.
“The sample (N 5 476) was based on a stratification plan to include adequate numbers of individuals within age bands, level of education, and racial/ethnic backgrounds.”
“The subject sample for this study deliberately emphasized representation of ethnic minorities (almost 50%) and the oldest and youngest groups (3-6 years and 65-85 years; together, 48%) to ensure that the tests would perform as needed in these important segments of the population.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Adequate test-retest reliability is essential for a cognitive battery intended for longitudinal studies.
“Adequate test-retest reliability was considered essential for the NIH-TB Cognition Battery, particularly because of its anticipated use in longitudinal studies.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional age differences in Cognition Battery performance reflect developmental or aging changes rather than cohort effects.
“We presented the relationship of Cognition Battery performance with age in cognitively normal children and adults.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The gold standard tests are valid measures of the intended cognitive constructs.
“The”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB) measures attention, working memory, language, processing speed, and executive functioning.”
From NIH toolbox cognition tests following traumatic brain injury: Frequency of low scores. (2017) · cites this paper as Weintraub et al., 2013
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Age effects.
“Thus, on the Picture Sequence Memory Test, performance improved during childhood and early adolescence, with gradual decline in scores across adult age ranges beginning in the 30s (figure , A).”
§ Age effects.
“(A) NIH Toolbox Picture Sequence Memory Test scores show improvement into early adulthood and then decline from the 50s on.”
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
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Perceptual and cognitive effects of focal tDCS of auditory cortex in tinnitusPreprint
Leaver, A. M. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.01.31.24302093 · Cited by 1
Forbes, O. (2024) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.246675 · Cited by 1
Burnett, J., Cobden, A. L., Burmester, A., Akhlaghi, H., Juan Dominguez, D., & Caeyenberghs, K. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/v5zyt · Cited by 1
Vidal, J. P. C., Gouarderes, A., Rabenantenaina, M.-S., Péran, P., Pariente, J., Danet, L., & Barbeau, E. J. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.09.20.614108 · Cited by 1
Sanderson‐Cimino, M. E., Possin, K. L., Mungas, D., Paolillo, E. W., Asken, B. M., Tsoy, E., Jarrott, S., Cobigo, Y., Saloner, R., Casaletto, K. B., et al. (2024) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2024.10.23.24315997 · Cited by 1
“The primary outcome for this task is a score that combines speed and accuracy (range: 0-190 10); see (Mullady et al. 2022) and the original NIH-EXAMINER Flanker Task (Kramer et al., 2014; Weintraub et al., 2013) for details.”
MethodSelf-citationKarcher, N. R., Dong, F., Johnson, E. C., Paul, S. E., Kilçiksiz, C. M., Oh, H. Y., Schiffman, J. E., Arpana Agrawal, A., Bogdan, R., Jackson, J. J., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.01.20.633817 · Cited by 1
Caulfield, K. A., Sege, C. T., Weaver, J., Murphy, K. R., Passaro, T., Meads, K., Dadgar‐Kiani, E., Antonucci, M. U., Good, C. H., & McTeague, L. M. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.05.27.656481 · Cited by 1
Convergent and Divergent Brain–Cognition DevelopmentPreprint
Xie, Y., Zhang, S., Orbán, C., Ooi, L. Q. R., Kong, R., Floris, D. L., Zuo, X., Dhamala, E., Holmes, A. J., Uddin, L. Q., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.06.06.658294 · Cited by 1
“…Vocabulary Task, Flanker Task, Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test, Picture Sequence Memory Test, and the Oral Reading Recognition Task) (Weintraub et al., 2013), and two additional tasks included the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) and Little Man Task (LMT) (Luciana et al.,…”
Avants, B., Tustison, N. J., & Stone, J. R. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.09.27.25336706 · Cited by 1
Cook, N. E., Iverson, G. L., & Karr, J. E. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1473095
“The National Institutes of Health Toolbox for Assessment of Neurological and Behavioral Function Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB) is a brief cognitive test battery (Weintraub et al., 2013).”
Summarization of Expository Texts by Students With Traumatic Brain Injury
Westby, C. E. (2018) · Word of Mouth · doi:10.1177/1048395018772844a
“Five subtests from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Toolbox Cognition Battery (see Bauer & Zelazo, 2013; Weintraub et al., 2013) were used to measure cognitive abilities for this study.”
MethodCognitive Fitness, Assessment, and Cognitive Rehabilitation of Older Population
Díaz-Orueta, U. (2015) · Advances in medical technologies and clinical practice book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-9530-6.ch005
Myelin water fraction decrease in mild traumatic brain injuryPreprint
Russell‐Schulz, B., Vavasour, I. M., Zhang, J., MacKay, A. L., Purcell, V., Muller, A. M., Brucar, L. R., Torres, I. J., Panenka, W. J., & Virji‐Babul, N. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.02.05.934430
Musical Training Enhances Inhibitory Control in Adolescence
Gonzalez, C. L. R., Robertson, F., & Gibb, R. L. (2020) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.91288
Shport, I. A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108886901.018
Lao, P. J., Turney, I. C., Avila, J. F., Vonk, J. M. J., Rentería, M. A., Šeblová, D., Chesebro, A. G., Laing, K. K., Amarante, E., Martinez, M., et al. (2021) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.01.15.21249832
Self-citationPai, S., Hui, S., Weber, P., Narayan, S., Whitley, O., Li, P., Labrie, V., Baumbach, J., & Bader, G. D. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/751933
Güsten, J., Berron, D., Düzel, E., & Ziegler, G. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/tqr84
Algorithmic Problems in Bioinformatics
Szalkai, B. (2018) · Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem · doi:10.15476/elte.2018.077
Application of Cognitive Test Outcomes for Clinical Drug Development
Edgar, C. J. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62351-7_12
Won, J., Callow, D. D., Purcell, J. J., & Smith, J. C. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-711825/v1
Zulauf-McCurdy, C. A., Coxe, S. J., Lyon, A. R., Aaronson, B., Ortiz, M., & Sibley, M. H. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045443
Fluid Cognition Relates to Locomotor Switching in Neurotypical Adults, Not Individuals After Stroke
French, M. A., Cohen, M. L., Pohlig, R. T., & Reisman, D. S. (2021) · Neurology Report · doi:10.1097/npt.0000000000000373
Assessment of Cognitive Function in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Yuen, K., Kakvan, M., Tayer-Shifman, O. E., Rozenbojm, N., Bingham, K. S., & Touma, Z. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73303-2_13
The Electrophysiological Correlates of Morphological Priming in Language Production
Koester, D., Giesbers, R., & Schiller, N. O. (2007) · Max Planck Digital Library
Skalaban, L. J., Cohen, A. O., Conley, M. I., Lin, Q., Schwartz, G. N., Cannonier, T., Martinez, S. A., & Casey, B. J. (2021) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/g49st
Intelligence (Crystallized/Fluid)
Shortell, D. D., & Porges, E. C. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22009-9_700
Gunther, K. E., Petrie, D. J., Pearce, A. L., Fuchs, B. A., Pérez‐Edgar, K. E., Keller, K., & Geier, C. F. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wcknj
What Do Neuroanatomical Networks Reveal About the Ontology of Human Cognitive Abilities?Preprint
Kristanto, D., Liu, X., Sommer, W., Hildebrandt, A., & Zhou, C. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3996396
Nayar, K., Shic, F., Winston, M., Stevens, C. J., Guilfoyle, J. L., & Losh, M. C. (2022) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xy7s9
HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders
Letendre, S. L., Iudicello, J. E., Ances, B. M., Marcotte, T. D., Spudich, S., & Cohen, M. A. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780199392742.003.0016
Stringer, A. Y. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57111-9_671
Neurological and Functional Outcomes Assessment
Uysal, S., & Mayer, S. A. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/med/9780190280253.003.0006
Intelligence (Crystallized/Fluid)
Shortell, D. D., & Porges, E. C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69892-2_700-1
Body mass variability is represented by distinct functional connectivity patternsPreprint
Sadler, J. R., Shearrer, G. E., & Burger, K. S. (2018) · doi:10.31232/osf.io/b9ahw
Neuropsychological Testing in HIV-Infected Individuals
Heaton, R. K., & Iudicello, J. E. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-9610-6_222-1
Self-citationEffects of Dance on Gait, Cognition and Dual Tasking in Parkinson�s disease: A Feasibility Study
Haputhanthirige, N. K. H. (2019) · Queensland University of Technology · doi:10.5204/thesis.eprints.131582
Cognitive Fitness, Assessment, and Cognitive Rehabilitation of Older Population
Díaz-Orueta, U. (2018) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-5469-1.ch011
Matthews, B. R. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139924771.009
Human Nervous System and Behavioral Toxicology☆
Fiedler, N. L. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801238-3.02207-8
Stringer, A. Y. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56782-2_671-2
Nair, S. S., Muddapu, V. R., Vigneswaran, C., Balasubramani, P. P., Ramanathan, D., Mishra, J., & Chakravarthy, V. S. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.06.17.496500
“Just as theoreticians sought to create unified architectures of cognition, experimental cognitive scientists also made efforts to move away from exclusivist approaches and began to study multiple cognitive functions in human population cohorts simultaneously (Weintraub et al., 2013).”
BackgroundCurrent evolution of neurobehavioral methods
Bouchard, M. F., Tuerk, C., Eadeh, H., Rohlman, D. S., Saha, T., & Anger, W. K. (2022) · Advances in neurotoxicology · doi:10.1016/bs.ant.2022.04.004
Plank, J. R., Glover, S. C., Moloney, B. D., Hoeh, N. R., Sundram, F., Sumner, R. L., Muthukumaraswamy, S. D., & Lin, J. C. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1982600/v1
ZONNEVELD, A. K., Serpell, Z. N., Parr, T. L. S., & Ellefson, M. R. (2022) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/desc.13319 · Cited by 3
Tartar, J. L., Astacio, M. A., Chau, M., Lin, L., LeMoire, A., & Banks, J. (2022) · Journal of Exercise and Nutrition · doi:10.53520/jen2022.103131
Young, S. R., Lattie, E. G., Berry, A. B. L., Bui, L., Byrne, G. J., Benavente, J. Y., Bass, M., Gershon, R. C., Wolf, M. S., & Nowinski, C. J. (2022) · doi:10.2196/preprints.42416
Self-citationDemographic differences in hearing thresholds compared to suprathreshold measuresPreprint
Gibbs, B. E., Anderson, S., & Gordon-Salant, S. M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5mbes
Alcohol consumption’s effects on working memory: Examining familial confounding.
Sepe-Forrest, L., Bailey, A. J., Quinn, P. D., Carver, F. W., Hetrick, W. P., & O’Donnell, B. F. (2023) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000936
Macphee, F. L., Brewer, S. K., Sibley, M. H., Graziano, P. A., Raiker, J. S., Coxe, S. J., Martin, P., Dreel, S. J. V., Ortiz, M., Lyon, A. R., et al. (2023) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-023-01291-3
“Working memory performance will be assessed using the List Sorting Working Memory Test from the NIH Toolbox [80], which shows excellent test–retest reliability and convergent and discriminant validity with other working memory measures [81].”
MethodMusich, M. L. (2023) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri) · doi:10.32469/10355/97091
Cook, R. L., Richards, V. L., Gullett, J. M., Lerner, B., Zhou, Z., Porges, E. C., Wang, Y., Kahler, C. W., Barnett, N. P., Li, Z., et al. (2023) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/53684
“The National Institutes of Health (NIH) toolbox (cognition battery) was given to participants to obtain an estimate of their crystalized (2 assessments) and fluid intellect (5 assessments) [43].”
Assessing Gambler’s Fallacy in Children Through Framing and Executive Functioning
Pope, J. H., & Cleaveland, J. M. (2023) · Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology · doi:10.5539/jedp.v14n1p11
“Despite emerging during infancy, it is thought that EF improves most drastically during the preschool years and that, while improvements continue beyond this, the changes are more gradual into adolescence and early adulthood (Zelazo et al., 2003; Diamond, 2006; Weintraub et al., 2013).”
BackgroundTortorici, V., Pérez-Carreño, C. C., & Uzcátegui-Guinand, L. E. (2022) · Anales de Ciencias Básicas Físicas y Naturales · doi:10.58479/acbfn.2022.18
Neuroticism levels in severe depression may reveal association with higher levels of intelligencePreprint
Nitchie, F. J., Moore, T. M., Scott, J. C., Makhoul, W., & Sheline, Y. I. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.11.22.23298698
Associations Between Inactivity and Cognitive Function in Older Intensive Care Unit Survivors
Elias, M. N., Ahrens, E. A., Schumacher, F., Liang, Z., & Munro, C. L. (2023) · Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing · doi:10.1097/dcc.0000000000000613
“The NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery Dimensional Change Card Sort Test (DCCST) 17 assessed cognitive flexibility, a subdomain of executive function, via the NIH Toolbox iPad application, which is publicly available in both English and Spanish.”
MethodInfluentialSabana, U. D. L., García-Sanz, S., Bejarano, J. C., et al. (2022) · doi:10.5294/978-958-12-0610-0.2022.11
The Absence of Positive-Skew Bias for Non-Monetary Realized Risky DecisionsPreprint
Frank, C. C., Wong, G. K. Y., Pillai, S. S., & Seaman, K. L. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/axf9d
McCrady, B. S., Claus, E. D., Witkiewitz, K. A., Shiver, A., Swartz, M., & Chávez, R. (2024) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2024.107538 · Cited by 1
Selective Engagement of Cognitive Resources Fail to Account for Age-Related Positive Skew BiasPreprint
Frank, C. C., Seaman, K. L., & Garza, C. (2024) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mpn5c
Kelly, N. R., Guidinger, C., Swan, D. M., Thivel, D., Folger, A. C., Luther, G. M., & Hahn, M. E. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-024-00495-1
Seo, J., Lee, E.-J., Kim, B., Kim, G., Joo, Y. Y., & Cha, J. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4805320
Cognitive modulation of pain: Interaction between attention, inhibitory control, and pain perception
Tortorici, V., Maestres, C., d’Escriván, N., Martínez-Lombao, R., Gershon, R. C., & Echeverria-Villalobos, M. (2024) · Revista Chilena de Anestesia · doi:10.25237/revchilanestv53n2-122
Self-citationCumming, M. M., Qiu, Y., Oblath, R., Frazier, S. L., Criado, C., Theodore, S., & Placido, G. (2024) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325241265973
Tagliaferri, S. D., Nguyen, J., Han, L. K. M., Cotton, S., Menssink, J. M., Ratheesh, A., Noel, M. E., & Schmaal, L. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/f496x
Dichotikus teszt alkalmazása tanulási nehézségeket mutató gyermekeknél
Désfalvi, I. (2023) · Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem · doi:10.15476/elte.2023.034
Kember, J., Gracia-Tabuenca, Z., Patel, R. D., Chakravarty, M. M., & Chai, X. J. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.09.04.611231
Madericova, K., & Talcott, J. B. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4920024/v1
Hercules, K., Liu, Z., Wei, J., Venegas, G., Ciocca, O., Dyer, A., Lee, G., Santini-Bishop, S., Shappell, H. M., Gee, D. G., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.09.13.612668
“Participants also completed cognitive assessments including the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (Picture Vocabulary, Flanker Test, List Sort Working Memory Task, Dimensional Change Card Sort Task, Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Task, Picture Sequence Memory Task, and the Oral Reading Test) (35).”
MethodA protective role for the cerebellum in cognitive agingPreprint
Uquillas, F. D., Sefik, E., Seidlitz, J., Merriman, J., Zhang, V., Cohen, J. D., Romero-García, R., Warrier, V., Bethlehem, R. A. I., Alexander‐Bloch, A. F., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.10.15.618102 · Cited by 1
“…Task (Zelazo, et al., 2013), which engage the frontoparietal network (Lie et al., 2006; Fassbender, et al., 2006), and two tasks that require memory processes, namely the Picture Sequence Memory Task (Weintraub et al., 2013), and the List Sorting Working Memory Task (Gershon, et al., 2013).”
MethodFirman-Sadler, L., Singh, M., D, J. F. D., Simpson-Kent, I. L., & Caeyenberghs, K. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.10.30.621202
Kariuki, J. K., Ntim, M., & Gitonga, M. M. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61160-5_14
Application of Cognitive Test Outcomes for Clinical Drug Development
Edgar, C. J. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61992-2_16
Kelly, N. R., Kosty, D. B., Bodovski, Y., Blackwell, C. K., Ganiban, J. M., Neiderhiser, J. M., Dabelea, D., Gilbert‐Diamond, D., Aschner, J. L., Bastain, T. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-024-00543-w
“Children’s EF was measured with three tasks from the National Institutes of Health Toolbox Cognition Battery (Weintraub et al., 2013).”
Self-citationPetkus, A. J., Sonti, A. N., Montoya, L., et al. (2025) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877241312934
“23 The NIHTB-CB includes attention, processing speed, working memory, language, episodic memory, and executive function tests.”
Distributional Latent Variable Models With an Application in Active Cognitive Testing
Kasumba, R., Marticorena, D., Pahor, A., Ramani, G. B., Goffney, I., Jaeggi, S. M., Seitz, A. R., Gardner, J. R., & Barbour, D. L. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems · doi:10.1109/tcds.2025.3548962
“Typically, test batteries are employed to explore these phenomena, incorporating multiple tests for each underlying construct to ensure the results are generalizable [7], [8].”
Adkinson, B. D., Rosenblatt, M., Sun, H.-L., Dadashkarimi, J., Tejavibulya, L., Horien, C., Westwater, M., Rodriguez, R., Noble, S., & Scheinost, D. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.03.12.642878 · Cited by 3
Berron, D. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822240-9.00009-0
Human Nervous System and Behavioral Toxicology
Fiedler, N. L., & Wiersielis, K. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95488-4.00231-x
Deep learning using structural MRI massively improves prediction accuracy of body mass indexPreprint
Cooper, A., Elsayed, M., Owens, M. M., & MacKillop, J. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.04.11.648433
“Control and Attention Test (Weintraub et al., 2013).”
Schwarb, H. D., Dulas, M. R., Patel, N. N., Bouton, N. A., Cohen, N. J., & Duff, M. C. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109157
Interdisciplinary Pain Treatment
Brose, W. G., You, D. S., Cooley, C., Schmeissing, A., & Cao, F. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-86057-7_26
Negative symptoms, cognition, and community functioning in early psychosis
Blotner, J., Hechinger, R. M., Shenton, M. E., Coleman, M. J., Öngür, D., & Lewandowski, K. E. (2025) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2025.05.015
Watson, K. H., Ciriegio, A. E., Fraley, C. E., Roth, M. C., & Compas, B. E. (2025) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-025-09669-3 · Cited by 1
Calub, C. A., Dickerson, A. S., Zhao, H., Joseph, R. M., O’Shea, T. M., Ahmad, S. I., Croen, L., Deoni, S., D’Sa, V. A., Ghassabian, A., et al. (2025) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.70031
“While only reflecting one model of cognitive processes, the NTCB is a widely used cognitive assessment tool that yields two scores that are statistical composites intended to reflect aspects of fluid and crystallized cognition (Weintraub et al., 2013).”
Provias, V., Kucukoglu, A., Robinson, A., Yandun-Oyola, S., He, R., Palumbo, A., Sihvonen, A. J., Shi, Y., Malgaroli, M., Schambra, H. M., et al. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.08.15.25333806
“The cognitive functioning measures will be assessed using the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (Weintraub et al., 2013).”
Talbert, L. D., Allen, W., Wheeler, A., Hartwell, B., Jensen, T., Young, E., Baldwin, T., Olpin, K., Baldwin, S. A., Hopkins, R. O., et al. (2025) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/s10484-025-09734-w · Cited by 2
“The NIHTB-CB has strong internal consistency and test–retest reliability ranging from 0.73 to 0.90 (Casaletto et al., 2015; Weintraub et al., 2013”
InfluentialSurprenant, R., Leroux-Maurais, D., Bezeau, D., Berrigan, F., Leriche, J., & Fitzpatrick, C. (2025) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/08901171251379431
“37 Additionally, all physical activity measures were winsorized at the 2nd and 98th per-centiles due to the substantial asymmetry observed in the data.”
Provias, V., Kucukoglu, A., Robinson, A., Yandun-Oyola, S., He, R., Palumbo, A., Sihvonen, A. J., Shi, Y., Malgaroli, M., Schambra, H. M., et al. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-109467
“68 We will assess cognitive functioning across several domains: (1) processing speed, using the Oral Symbol Digit Test, a timed task in which participants match symbols to numbers; (2) working memory, using the List Sorting Working Memory Test, which requires participants to recall and sequence…”
Cognitive Flexibility is Critical for Postural Control in People with Parkinson DiseasePreprint
Leedom, M., Berg-Poppe, P. J., Espinoza, A. I., & Singh, A. P. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.09.26.25336649
“The NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery (NIHTB-CB) includes validated measures of cognitive flexibility and executive processing, allowing for a focused yet comprehensive assessment of the constructs relevant to our hypothesis (Nasreddine et al, 2005; Weintraub et al, 2013).”
Bilingual Perception of Dysarthric Speech.
Tetzloff, K. A., Fletcher, A. R., Lansford, K. L., Barrett, T., & Borrie, S. (2025) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/2025_jslhr-25-00288
Neumann, S., Calise, S., Dwyer, B., & Agrawal, S. (2025) · Otology & Neurotology Open · doi:10.1097/ono.0000000000000078
Stauder, M. J., Horn, O., & Hayes, S. M. (2025) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617725101446 · Cited by 1
“During the Pattern Comparison Processing Speed Test (Weintraub et al., 2013), participants decided whether two pictures presented beside one another were the same or not as quickly as possible.”
InfluentialNeema, M., Halabi, N. M., Nopoulos, P., Freedberg, M., & the ChANGE-HD investigators, C. (2025) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.10.22.25338583
“However, in alignment with new NIH guidelines seeking to improve the inter-rater reliability of multi-site cognitive outcomes, a protocol change was implemented to use the NIH Toolbox (Version 2) [20].”
Thomas, A. B., Matthews, A. L., Brooks, O., Winquist, A., Nelson, L. A., Arias‐Fontenot, R., Buchwald, D., Casaletto, K. B., Weıntraub, S., Heaton, R. K., et al. (2025) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.70673
Self-citationSingh, D. S., & Weisenbach, D. S. L. (2025) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781394295432.ch08
Metadata
- Authors
- Weintraub, S., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Zelazo, P. D., Bauer, P. J., Carlozzi, N. E., Slotkin, J., Blitz, D., Wallner-Allen, K., Fox, N. A., Beaumont, J. L., Mungas, D., Nowinski, C. J., Richler, J., Deocampo, J. A., Anderson, J. E., Manly, J. J., Borosh, B., Havlik, R., Conway, K., Edwards, E., Freund, L., King, J. W., Moy, C., Witt, E., & Gershon, R. C.
- Affiliations
- From the Cognitive Neurology and Alzheimer's Disease Center (S.W., B.B.), Northwestern Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL; Department of Rehabilitation Medicine (S.S.D.), University of Washington, Seattle, WA; Department of Psychiatry (R.K.H.), University of California, San Diego, CA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation (D.S.T., N.E.C.), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI; Institute of Child Development (P.D.Z., J.E.A.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN; Department of...
- University of Minnesota (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Neurology
- Published
- 2013-03-12
- Volume
- 80
- Issue
- 11_supplement_3
- Pages
- S54-64
- ISSN
- 0028-3878 (ISSN-L)
- 1526-632X
- PMC
- PMC3662346
- OpenAlex
- W4296295377
- Semantic Scholar
- ad1bf29d236b7efc7939f4798eb18300052b81c2
- Cited by
- 1,287
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 106 · 2025: 140 · 2024: 162 · 2023: 143 · 2022: 157 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 130 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 71 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 11
- FWCI
- 33.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Neurology (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Kessler Foundation
- Brown University
- Ohio State University
- Northwestern University
- University of Washington
- Temple University
- National Institutes of Health (5ul1rr025761-04)
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (HHSN260200600007C)
- U.S. Public Health Service (NIDRR H133G090022, NIDRR H133A080035, H133A070037-08A, H133B090024, H133G070138, HHSN260200600007, H133A980023, H133N060022, B6237R)
- University of California, San Diego
- University of California, San Francisco
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (201963)
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG028786, R01 AG016206, U01 AG14282, R01AG037212, RC2AG036498, U01AG014260, N01-AG-6-0007, U01AG14260, 1RC2AG036498-01, U01AG014263, U01AG014276, R01AG010220, U01AG014289, P30AG013854, AG-260-06-01, U01AG014282)
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (K23HL085766 NIA, K23HL085766)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH074454, U01MH083506, R01MH058076, R01MH078748, R01 MH060720, R01MH081861, U01MH074454, P50MH078105, R01 MH073433, R01MH083552, U01MH080759, R01MH078737, R01MH080759, R01MH091363, R01MH074454, P30MH062512)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (P50DA026306, P01DA012065)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R01DC008552)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (U01DK082342, 1U01DK082342-01)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (HHSN 2652004236-01C, R03NS065194, U01 NS 056 975 02, R01 NS058302, NIH R01 NS058302)
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (U01 AR057929, U54AR057943, 1U5AR057943-01)
- National Center for Research Resources (UL1-RR025761)
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R37 HD017899, P01HD064653, R01HD061400, HHSN267200700027C, HD05469, R01HD054659, R01HD067359)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- NIH Toolbox, cognitive assessment, executive function, episodic memory, language, processing speed, working memory, attention, test-retest reliability, construct validity, age effects, computerized cognitive assessment, cognitive outcome measures
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Attention, Child, Child, Preschool, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Humans, Language, Middle Aged, National Institutes of Health (U.S.), Neuropsychological Tests, United States, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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