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Cited by 10Lower Extremity Biomechanics and PathologiesBalance, Gait, and Falls PreventionRobotic Locomotion and Control

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 49 of the 49 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

The energetic cost of human walking as a function of uneven terrain amplitude

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Hosseini-Yazdi, Seyed-Saleh, Kuo, Arthur D.·2025·Journal of Experimental Biology
DOI 10.1242/jeb.249840

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Abstract

Humans expend more energy walking on uneven terrain, but the amount varies across terrains. Few experimental characterizations exist, each describing terrain qualitatively without any relation to others or to flat ground. This precludes mechanistic explanation of the energy costs. Here, we show that energy costs vary smoothly and approximately quadratically as a function of terrain amplitude. We tested this with healthy adults (N=10) walking on synthetic uneven terrain with random step heights of parametrically controlled maximum amplitude (four conditions 0–0.045 m) and at four walking speeds (0.8–1.4 m s−1). Both net metabolic rate and the rate of positive work increased approximately with amplitude squared and speed cubed (R2=0.74, 0.82, respectively), as predicted by a simple walking model. The model requires work to redirect the body center of mass velocity between successive arcs described by pendulum-like legs, at proportional metabolic cost. Humans performed most of the greater work with terrain amplitude early in the single stance phase, and with speed later in stance during push-off. Work and energy rates changed with approximately linear proportionality, with a ratio or delta efficiency of 49.5% (R2=0.68). The efficiency was high enough to suggest substantial work performed passively by elastic tendon and not only by active muscle. Simple kinematic measures such as mid-swing foot clearance also increased with terrain amplitude (R2=0.65), possibly costing energy as well. Nevertheless, most of the metabolic cost of walking faster or on more uneven terrain can be explained mechanistically by the work performed.

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Crossref · 10.1242/jeb.249840

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Metadata

Authors
Hosseini-Yazdi, S.-S., & Kuo, A. D.
Affiliations
University of Calgary 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering , , Calgary, AB , , T2N 1N4
ORCID
Kuo, Arthur D.
Venue
Journal of Experimental Biology
Publisher
The Company of Biologists
Published
2025-03-15
Volume
228
Issue
6
ISSN
  • 0022-0949 (ISSN-L)
  • 1477-9145
DOI
10.1242/jeb.249840
OpenAlex
W4406963223
Cited by
10
References
49
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 3
FWCI
1.89
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Experimental Biology (publishedVersion)
  • bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Lower Extremity Biomechanics and Pathologies
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Physical Therapy, Sports Therapy and Rehabilitation › Balance, Gait, and Falls Prevention
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Robotic Locomotion and Control
Keywords
energy cost of walking, uneven terrain, metabolic rate, positive work, walking speed, pendulum model, walking efficiency, foot clearance, stance phase, gait biomechanics
MeSH terms
Adult, Biomechanical Phenomena, Energy Metabolism, Female, Humans, Male, Walking, Young Adult

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