Muscle function after exercise-induced muscle damage and rapid adaptation

“…probably due to the protective effect conferred by progressive overload started from very low-intensity, by which the knee extensors became resilient to eccentric contractioninducedmuscle damage (Clarkson et al., 1992; Howatson and van Someren, 2008; Hyldahl and Hubal, 2014; LaStayo et al., 2014).”

“in muscle proteins in the blood, delayed onset muscle soreness) provides a strong protective eVect against muscle damage in the subsequent bouts of the same exercise performed within several weeks (Clarkson et al. 1992; Nosaka et al. 2001a, 2005).”

“25(11): 3039–3044, 2011—Comparisons between men and”

“50 Peak force loss (%) j31 (7) j25 (8) 24 0.”

“Although there is no direct evidence, it is thought that this inflammation is responsible, at least in part, for the prolonged loss in MVC (25) and RANG (4,21), and the late appearance (3–5 d after exercise) of CK and Mb in the blood (5,6).”

“Exercise, particularly when strenuous, unfamiliar, and/or involving an eccentric component, can cause ultrastructural damage to skeletal muscle myofibrils and the surrounding extracellular matrix [36, 59].”

“Within this context, implementing specific DR sessions in the training program of runners could be recommended to benefit from the protective effects of the RBE and adapt well to the next DR session or to better tolerate DR sections in off-road or road races.”

“These results are consistent with previous research which has reported a similar temporal pattern of muscle soreness following eccentrically-biased exercise (Twist & Eston 2005; Clarkson et al. 1992; Cleak & Eston 1992a,b).”

“Several indirect markers of muscle damage used in previous studies (Clarkson et al., 1992; Nosaka et al., 2001a; 2001b) were measured before (pre), immediately (i.e., within 5 min) after (post), and at approximately 24-hr intervals for 4 days after each exercise bout (D1–D4).”

“EIMD is characterized by a primary response as a result of mechanical stress that occurs during exercise and a secondary inflammatory response [1,2].”

“Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) has been defined as delayed onset soreness, muscle stiffness, swelling, loss of force-generating capacity, reduced joint range of motion, and decreased proprioceptive function [1].”

“However, studies show that after exercise-induced muscle damage, Mb immediately increased [17,36,38], as well as muscle pain after 24 and 48 h [18,19,48].”

“Therefore, consistent with previous findings (Clarkson et al., 1992), swelling peaks at a time when soreness is beginning to subside and is therefore unlikely to be directly responsible for the pain.”

“muscles that have not been exposed to eccentric contractions regularly (10).”

“For example, plasma creatine kinase reactivity is reduced for as long as 6 months after a single eccentric bout, indicating long-lasting adaptation (Nosaka et al., 1991; Clarkson et al., 1992).”

“While plasma CK is not a direct marker of muscle injury, it has been repeatedly shown that elevated CK levels provide support that muscle fibers have been injured (Clarkson and Newham 1995; Clarkson et al. 1992).”

“Creatine kinase is often used to indirectly assess the degree of muscle damage as a result of exercise ( Clarkson et al. 1992; Roti et al. 1981).”

“Given the established muscle-damaging effects of high-intensity eccentric exercise (6,11,37), it is not surprising that selected indices of postexercise performance are influenced by soccer match-play (21,25,34).”

“Among these serum enzymes, creatine kinase rises more dramatically in untrained individuals than in athletes after performing the same amount of exercise (Evans et al., 1986; Clarkson et al., 1992; Nosaka and Clarkson, 1995).”

“It is well known that CK leaks into the plasma after a high training or competition exposure with repeated intense contractions (Clarkson et al., 1992; Noakes, 1987; Mougios, 2007).”

“The main reason for both CK and Mb were included in this study was that a large variability among participants for the magnitude of changes in serum/plasma CK activity after eccentric exercise has been reported (8,26).”

“Since the study was also designed to assess the impact of protein supplementation on muscle soreness, a second experiment used a group design with runners matched on their season’s performance and then randomly allocated to receive one of the three beverages, thereby avoiding the known repeated bout effect on muscle s…”

“Eccentric muscle contractions exceeding the muscle’s resistance result in perforations in the sarcolemma and damage to the sarcomeres, leading to increased membrane permeability [30, 62, 63], and release of CK into the interstitial fluid that then enters circulation via the lymphatic system [32].”

“While the variation between subjects could be important, the response of one muscle group to eccentric exercises in a defined subject may be stable as all subjects demonstrate very similar CK responses when repeating the same exercise one year later (Clarkson et al., 1992; Chen, 2006).”

“However, some studies [80, 81] have reported that the RBE induced by 24 maximal eccentric actions of the elbow flexors may last up to 6 months.”

“Maximal eccentric contractions appear to damage the cytoskeletal framework with myofibrillar disruption, which clinically is associated with transient muscle weakness, elevation of serum creatine kinase, and delayed-onset muscle soreness.(35,36) In NMDs that affect the integrity of the muscle-cell membrane, it is poss…”

“... muscle damage have been observed (Pizza et al. 1995), including disruption of contractile tissue (Friden and Lieber 1992), cellular accumulation of calcium (Armstrong 1990), delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) (Clarkson et al. 1992), a prolonged reduction in muscular strength and range of motion, and an increase…”

“…(Friden et al., 1983; Newham et al., 1983; Jones et al., 1986), Z-line streaming (Friden and Lieber, 1992), sarcoplasmic reticulum fragmentation (Clarkson et al., 1992) and swollen mitochondria * Author to whom all correspondence should be addressed. e-mail: a.rowlands@bangor.ac.uk (Hikida et…”

“This might explain the poor correlation between serum CK level and changes in muscle histology [49].”

“This adaptation is often referred to as the repeated bout eVect, and is characterized by a faster recovery of muscle strength and range of motion (ROM), reduced increases in muscle proteins in the blood, and less signiWcant development of swelling and muscle soreness (SOR) (Clarkson et al. 1992; Nosaka et al. 2001b).”

“Previous studies have shown that a single bout of unaccustomed eccentric exercise can lead to a protective effect whereupon a second bout of eccentric exercise may result in less muscle damage [32-34].”

“However, Izquierdo et al. (2001) reported significant increases in strength and power in the arm and leg muscles, but no significant changes were detected for serum testosterone and free testosterone concentration in middle-aged men.”

“extracellular matrix can contribute to the prolonged impaired force-generating capacity of the muscle (Clarkson et al. 1992; Proske and Allen 2005; Crameri et al. 2007).”

“It is known that eccentric muscle actions, during which active muscles are lengthened while producing force, induce greater damage to muscular tissue than other types of muscle actions, especially when they are performed for the first time (Clarkson et al. 1992).”

“For example, among a sample unaccustomed to performing resistance exercise, individuals (N 31) exhibiting low blood creatine kinase responses to 70 maximal eccentric actions of the forearm flexors reported significantly lower muscle pain intensity (~ 40% less) 1–5 d after exercise compared with individuals who perform…”

“A hyper-response was defined as a CK measurement above 2000 U·L−1 at any time-point following the EIMD protocol [36,40].”

“attenuated and/or recovered faster to baseline when the same or similar eccentric exercise is repeated within several weeks (Black and McCully 2008; Clarkson et al. 1992; DiPasquale et al. 2011).”

“Eccentric exercise is well known to induce impairment of force-generating capacity (4,9,14,16, 19,22,24), that could persist for several days (4,9,15,16,19).”

“Unlike the EDL muscles of mice, which display a substantial secondary increase in force deficit at 3 days (10), the plateau in the force deficit for EDL muscles of rats is similar to the pattern observed previously for muscle groups in humans (7, 17).”

“Maximal eccentric contractions seem to damage the cytoskeletal framework with myofibrillar disruption, which clinically is associated with transient muscle weakness, elevation of serum creatine kinase, and delayed-onset muscle soreness.(27,28) In NMDs that affect the integrity of the muscle cell membrane, it is possib…”

“This observation suggests that the inflammatory process due to eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage could be mediated in part by BK. creatine kinase; delayed-onset muscle soreness; kinins; inflamation; des-Arg9-bradykinin EXERCISE, particularly unaccustomed strenuous exercise, eccentric contractions, and contracti…”

“Since CK activity in the blood is believed to reflect muscle membrane disruption [18], maximal isometric strength and muscle soreness following eccentric muscle contractions might be correlated.”

“Structural damage and delayed onset soreness are inherent characteristics of muscle unaccustomed to ECC contractions (9).”

“Néanmoins, il a été rapporté qu’un entraı̂nement ECC préalable d’intensité modérée a un effet préventif sur ces lésions musculaires et leurs conséquences en termes de perte de capacité à produire de la force [9,33].”

“Three studies by other research groups investigated the effect of eccentric exercise on muscle reaction time of the upper limbs after a light stimulus and produced contrasting results (Clarkson et al., 1992; Craske & Crawshaw, 1975; Miles et al., 1997).”

“However, high intensity, long duration and short-rest time exercises may lead to severe inflammation, muscle damage and consequently muscle pain (Clarkson, Nosaka, and Braun 1992; Powers et al. 2010; Wagner, Reichhold, and Neubauer 2011), as well as influence immunological response (Walsh et al.…”

“Vigorous eccentric exercise has been shown to lead to delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and changes in functional parameters like force and range of motion (Clarkson et al. 1992; Rodenburg et al. 1993).”

“, plasma levels of muscle cell proteins (4, 30) and delayed-onset soreness (4).”

“For example, a bout of unaccustomed exercise, especially that including eccentric muscle contractions such as downhill running, can damage contractile proteins, impair muscle function, and induce muscle soreness [11, 12].”

“of muscle damage (5,14), has also been shown to be reduced”

“Damage to muscle fibers causes spontaneous shortening of these fibers (9), thus increasing muscle hardness (6).”

“The symptoms are delayed onset soreness, muscle stiffness, swelling, loss of force-generating capacity, reduced joint range of motion and decreased proprioceptive function [13].”

“Some of the eVects of this uncomfortable situation are loss of muscle force and range of movement (ROM), histologic disturbance of muscle and connective tissue, large increases in concentration of muscle proteins in the blood as well as development of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and swelling ( Clarkson et al.…”

“Previous studies have shown that muscles need several weeks to recover from eccentric damage-inducing exercise, and repeating the subsequent and identical exercise bout is often performed after complete recovery from the initial bout (Clarkson & Hubal, 2002; Clarkson et al., 1992; McHugh et al., 1999; Nosaka et al., 1…”

“Indeed, bouts of strenuous exercise do incur damage to muscles, and create soreness that may last for days afterwards ( Clarkson, Nosaka, & Braun, 1992 ; Smith, 1991 ).”

“Muscle injury induced by eccentric contractions can lead to morphologic changes in myofibrils and connective tissue(2,26) that ultimately initiate a local inflammatory response and subsequent biochemical changes within the damaged muscle tissue.(27) The local inflammatory response to exertion-induced muscle injury is…”

“When a subsequent bout of the same or similar eccentric exercise is performed within several weeks, the changes in the muscle damage markers are attenuated and recovered to the baseline faster compared with the initial exercise bout (Clarkson et al. 1992; Black and McCully 2008; Chen et al. 2009).”