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Muscle function after exercise-induced muscle damage and rapid adaptation
Abstract
This brief review focuses on the time course of changes in muscle function and other correlates of muscle damage following maximal effort eccentric actions of the forearm flexor muscles. Data on 109 subjects are presented to describe an accurate time course of these changes and attempt to establish relationships among the measures. Peak soreness is experienced 2-3 d postexercise while peak swelling occurs 5 d postexercise. Maximal strength and the ability to fully flex the arm show the greatest decrements immediately after exercise with a linear restoration of these functions over the next 10 d. Blood creatine kinase (CK) levels increase precipitously at 2 d after exercise which is also the time when spontaneous muscle shortening is most pronounced. Whether the similarity in the time courses of some of these responses implies that they are caused by similar factors remains to be determined. Performance of one bout of eccentric exercise produces an adaptation such that the muscle is more resistant to damage from a subsequent bout of exercise. The length of the adaptation differs among the measures such that when the exercise regimens are separated by 6 wk, all measures show a reduction in response on the second, compared with the first, bout. After 10 wk, only CK and muscle shortening show a reduction in response. After 6 months only the CK response is reduced. A combination of cellular factors and neurological factors may be involved in the adaptation process.
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“Recall that the greatest declines in muscle function occur immediately following eccentric contraction-induced injury, yet markers of muscle damage are not fully apparent until 1–2 days after injury (34, 47, 52).”
From Phytoecdysteroids Accelerate Recovery of Skeletal Muscle Function Following in vivo Eccentric Contraction-Induced Injury in Adult and Old Mice (2021) · cites this paper as [52]
In the citing paper
“However, there is a dissociation between muscle function and histological markers of muscle damage that disputes the latter causal relationship.”
From Phytoecdysteroids Accelerate Recovery of Skeletal Muscle Function Following in vivo Eccentric Contraction-Induced Injury in Adult and Old Mice (2021) · cites this paper as [52]
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MethodMacronutrient intake and whole body protein metabolism following resistance exercise
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“It is well documented that previous myofibrillar damage, such as that caused by resistance exercise, causes the muscle to become more resilient to future damage (8).”
BackgroundPHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES AND RATE OF PERCEIVED EXERTION IN BRAZILIAN JIU-JITSU ATHLETES
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“To limit a potential protective effect of a preceding eccentric training (Clarkson et al. 1992; Nosaka and Clarkson 1995), the subjects were requested not to perform any eccentric or SSC-type training for at least 3 weeks prior to the experiment.”
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Self-citationDrobnic, F., Lizarraga, M. A., Caballero-García, A., & Córdova, A. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14091811 · Cited by 46
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“Exercises that are biased toward eccentric contractions, in which the muscles are lengthening while trying to contract, are particularly damaging to muscle fibers partly because of the increased strain placed on muscle tissues.(4,5,21) Exercises with repetitive and strenuous eccentric contractions have been reported t…”
BackgroundExercise-induced mechanical hypoalgesia in musculotendinous tissues of the lateral elbow
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“This adaptive or protective effect conferred by a single bout of eccentric exercise is often referred to as the ‘repeated bout’ effect (Clarkson et al. 1992) and occurs even at low load (Lavender and Nosaka 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationPower loss is greater following lengthening contractions in old versus young women
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BackgroundEffect of aqua exercise on recovery of lower limb muscles after downhill running
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Effect of eccentric exercise on plasma enzyme activities previously elevated by eccentric exercise
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Self-citationPhysical and balance performance following exercise induced muscle damage in male soccer players
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Self-citationFatigue-Induced Cole Electrical Impedance Model Changes of Biceps Tissue Bioimpedance
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Muscle glycogen utilisation during Rugby match play: Effects of pre-game carbohydrate
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“Because an increase in CK (Clarkson et al., 1992;Hyatt & Clarkson, 1998; Smith, 1991) and GOT (Nosaka & Clarkson, 1994, 1995; Rowland, 1980) after exercise-induced muscle damage is often used as a biochemical marker of muscle cell disruption and there were no significantgroup differences (e.”
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“Eccentric muscle actions typically result in a greater degree of acute trauma as evidenced by elevated serum creatine kinase, myoglobin, and skeletal troponin-1 levels, and delayedonset muscle soreness (32).”
BackgroundSonkodi, B. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11010108 · Cited by 39
“Impaired proprioception is comprised in the definition of DOMS [1], but it is an often forgotten symptom.”
BackgroundInfluentialDelayed Onset Muscle Soreness and Critical Neural Microdamage-Derived Neuroinflammation
Sonkodi, B. (2022) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom12091207 · Cited by 37
“Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) has been defined as delayed onset soreness, muscle stiffness, swelling, loss of force-generating capacity, reduced joint range of motion, and decreased proprioceptive function [1].”
BackgroundSarcolemmal excitability as investigated with M-waves after eccentric exercise in humans
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“, 1990), muscle swelling (Clarkson et al., 1992), a shift in optimal joint angle for torque generation (Jones et al.”
BackgroundReliability of muscle function and sensory perception measurements of the wrist extensors
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MethodSelf-citationJaskólski, A., Andrzejewska, R., Marusiak, J., Kisiel‐Sajewicz, K., & Jaskólska, A. (2006) · Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology · doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2006.05.002 · Cited by 37
“– the antagonists) after 25 submaximal ECC and that the subjects still showed muscle weakness up to 5 days (120 h) after exercise; this is in agreement with the findings of others (Clarkson et al., 1992; Kroon and Naeije, 1991; Michaut et al., 2001; Prasartwuth et al., 2005).”
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Self-citationEffects of Cold Water Immersion on Muscle Oxygenation During Repeated Bouts of Fatiguing Exercise
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“In particular, it is well documented that eccentric-biased exercises are associated with muscle damage, swelling, stiffness, and pain.(4) Team sports such as rugby, football have a high component of highintensity eccentric muscle contractions, which lead to muscle damage.”
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Self-citationValidity of Diagnostic Ultrasound as a Measure of Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness
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The Effects of Eccentric Exercise on Neuromuscular Function of the Biceps Brachll
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Is there Evidence for the Suggestion that Fatigue Accumulates Following Resistance Exercise?
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“Highvolume and eccentric resistance exercise causes a greater magnitude of exercise-induced muscle damage and inflammation.(11,16-19) This response is characterized by a transient increase in creatine kinase (CK) and inflammatory biomarkers (eg, interleukin-6 [IL-6], tumor necrosis factor α [TNF-α], and C-reactive pro…”
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“Muscle damage is velocity-, ROM-, and load-dependent (4,18).”
BackgroundProtein-Based Supplementation to Enhance Recovery in Team Sports: What is the Evidence?
Poulios, A., Georgakouli, K., Draganidis, D., Deli, C. K., Tsimeas, P. D., Chatzinikolaou, A., Παπανικολάου, Κ., Batrakoulis, A., Mohr, M., Jamurtas, A. Z., et al. (2019) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 35
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“The greatest decrements were observed approximately 24 hours after the damage occurred, a finding that agreed with previous work.(25,27,31) Recovery to baseline strength and endurance levels was complete after 5 days in both groups in the current study.”
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“The EIMD has more immediate implications, including delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and impaired muscular strength and power, which have the ability to compromise performance and quality of training (Clarkson, Nosaka, and Braun 1992; MacIntyre, Reid, and McKenzie 1995).”
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“These symptoms, known to develop to different levels across individuals, include delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), swelling, decreased range of motion, prolonged muscle dysfunction and leakage of muscle proteins into blood circulation (Clarkson et al., 1992; Proske & Allen, 2005; Chen et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialShort-Term Immobilization after Eccentric Exercise. Part I: Contractile Properties
Sayers, S. P., Peters, B. T., Knight, C. A., Urso, M. L., Parkington, J. D., & Clarkson, P. M. (2003) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000064932.55998.cc · Cited by 34
“4) immediately after eccentric exercise that were consistent with responses observed in similar exercise protocols (4,19).”
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“Although the mechanisms leading to DOMS are not clearly established, it has been proposed that the inflammatory process observed in the epimysium of the exercised muscle plays an important role (Clarkson et al., 1992; Crameri et al., 2004).”
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“While muscle damage can occur rapidly, in general the repair process can be prolonged (Clarkson et al., 1992; Clarkson and Sayers, 1999).”
BackgroundEffect of eccentric contraction-induced injury on force and intracellular pH in rat skeletal muscles
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“ECCENTRIC CONTRACTION (EC), in which the muscle is stretched while contracting, results in delayed-onset muscle soreness, which peaks ;24 h after the muscle activity (6, 16).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEffects of Exhaustive Concentric and Eccentric Exercise on Murine Skeletal Muscle
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BackgroundEffects of eccentric exercise on trunk extensor torque and lumbar paraspinal EMG
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“One contraction was performed every 15 s (4).”
BackgroundEffects of Acupuncture on Exercise-Induced Muscle Soreness and Serum Creatine Kinase Activity
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An Experimental Approach to Examining Psychological Contributions to Multisite Musculoskeletal Pain
Niederstrasser, N. G., Slepian, P. M., Mankovsky-Arnold, T., Larivière, C., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., & Sullivan, M. J. L. (2014) · Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2014.08.007 · Cited by 32
Eccentric Overload Muscle Damage is Attenuated By a Novel Angiotensin- (1-7) Treatment
Becker, L. K., Totou, N. L., de Moura, S. S., Kangussu, L. M., Millán, R. D. S., Campagnole‐Santos, M. J., Coelho, D. B., Motta‐Santos, D., & Santos, R. A. (2018) · International Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.1055/a-0633-8892 · Cited by 33
Tokinoya, K., Ishikura, K., Ra, S., Ebina, K., Miyakawa, S., & Ohmori, H. (2020) · Journal of Exercise Science & Fitness · doi:10.1016/j.jesf.2020.03.001 · Cited by 32
Sonkodi, B., Hegedűs, Á., Kopper, B., & Berkes, I. (2022) · Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · doi:10.3390/jfmk7020043 · Cited by 32
“DOMS is defined as a delayed onset of soreness, muscle stiffness, swelling, loss of force-generating capacity, reduced joint range of motion and diminished proprioceptive function [1].”
Backgroundda Silva, L. A., Tromm, C. B., da Rosa, G. L., Bom, K., Luciano, T. F., Tuon, T., de Souza, C. T., & Pinho, R. A. (2013) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2013.773403 · Cited by 32
“, 2001), increased serum creatine kinase (CK) activity (Clarkson et al., 1992; Stupka et al., 2001), oxidative stress (Silva et al.”
BackgroundPulsed ultrasound fails to diminish delayed-onset muscle soreness symptoms.
Jc, S., Richárd, Draper, D. O., et al. (1998) · PubMed · Cited by 31
Hoppe, C. B., de Oliveira, J. V. M., Grecca, F. S., Haas, A. N., & Gomes, M. S. (2016) · International Endodontic Journal · doi:10.1111/iej.12686 · Cited by 31
“This inflammatory response in the muscle can lead to a secondary damage to the healthy muscle structures, which may length on the muscle repair process and increase muscle soreness, making the individual more hesitant to contract his or her skeletal muscles (Armstrong 1984, Clarkson et al. 1992).”
BackgroundGrape Consumption’s Effects on Fitness, Muscle Injury, Mood, and Perceived Health
O’Connor, P. J., Caravalho, A. L., Freese, E. C., & Cureton, K. J. (2013) · International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism · doi:10.1123/ijsnem.23.1.57 · Cited by 32
The Effects of Static Stretching Intensity on Range of Motion and Strength: A Systematic Review
Bryant, J., Cooper, D. J., Peters, D. M., & Cook, M. D. (2023) · Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · doi:10.3390/jfmk8020037 · Cited by 49
“This is especially true as temperature [50], muscle damage [51], age [52], and menstrual hormonal effects (i.”
BackgroundResponse to high‐intensity eccentric muscle contractions in persons with myopathic disease
Kilmer, D. D., Aitkens, S. G., Wright, N. C., et al. (2001) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.1130 · Cited by 30
“This was due to the finding that not all subjects responded with a significant serum CK rise, as reported in previous studies.(7) Chi-square analysis was performed to compare the proportion of subjects within each group that had at least a tenfold increase in CK.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNosaka, K., & Newton, M. J. (2002) · Journal of science and medicine in sport · doi:10.1016/s1440-2440(02)80005-6 · Cited by 30
“Based on the increased p l a sma enzyme activities (Table 2), however, it appea r s tha t p l a sma m e m b r a n e integrity was not compromised following ECC2 (Clarkson et al., 1992; Newham et al., 1987).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationDouleurs musculaires posteffort
Coudreuse, J. M., Dupont, P., & Nicol, C. (2004) · Annales de Réadaptation et de Médecine Physique · doi:10.1016/j.annrmp.2004.05.012 · Cited by 30
Physiological Responses of Walleyes to Live-Release Angling Tournaments
Killen, S. S., Suski, C. D., Morrissey, M. B., et al. (2003) · North American Journal of Fisheries Management · doi:10.1577/m02-164 · Cited by 30
“For example, the plasma CPK activity can be increased several thousand times above resting levels in humans following severe exercise (Clarkson et al. 1992).”
BackgroundKomine, S., Miura, I., Miyashita, N., Oh, S., Tokinoya, K., Shoda, J., & Ohmori, H. (2021) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.15130 · Cited by 29
“Furthermore, DOMS is associated with muscle damage, and when muscle damage occurs, CK, LDH, ALD, and AST, which are enzymes present in muscle cells, are released into the blood (Bassit et al., 2010; Clarkson et al., 1992; Cooke et al., 2009; Nosaka et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2005).”
BackgroundThe effects of a tart cherry beverage on reducing exercise-induced muscle soreness
Beals, K., Allison, K. F., Darnell, M., Lovalekar, M. T., Baker, R., Nieman, D. C., Yoram Vodovotz, B., & Lephart, S. M. (2016) · Isokinetics and Exercise Science · doi:10.3233/ies-160645 · Cited by 29
“In examining strength decrements immediately post eccentric exercise, previous research reported forearm flexor strength loss of over 50% [13] and knee extension MVC force decrease of approximately 64% of pre-exercise levels [8].”
Localized Bicep Tissue Bioimpedance Alterations Following Eccentric Exercise in Healthy Young Adults
Freeborn, T. J., Regard, G., & Fu, B. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.2970314 · Cited by 29
“While muscle contractions are necessary for all tasks, repetitive contractions through participation in high-intensity activity (such as sports or resistance training) can cause sarcomere damage [2], shortened connective tissue, passive muscle stiffness, and decreased range of motion (ROM) [3], [4].”
BackgroundLaroche, D., Joussain, C., Espagnac, C., et al. (2012) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2012.12.012 · Cited by 29
Serial assessment of local peripheral vascular function after eccentric exercise
Stacy, M. R., Bladon, K. J., Lawrence, J. L., McGlinchy, S. A., & Scheuermann, B. W. (2013) · Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2012-0448 · Cited by 28
Apostolopoulos, N. C., Lahart, I. M., Plyley, M. J., et al. (2018) · Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2017-0841 · Cited by 28
“DOMS has been associated – inter alia – with a loss of maximum voluntary force (Newham et al., 1983, Newham et al., 1987, Clarkson et al., 1992), changes in the muscle contractile properties (Newham et al., 1983), increased protein levels related to muscle damage [i.e., creatine kinase (CK)]…”
BackgroundDoma, K., Gahreman, D. E., & Connor, J. D. (2020) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2020.1775895 · Cited by 28
Ochi, E., Nakazato, K., & Ishii, N. (2011) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e3181f1592e · Cited by 28
“In this repair process, a variety of cytokines are produced, and some of them play a part in the delayed onset muscle soreness (7,22,23,26).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- CLARKSON, P. M., NOSAKA, K., & BRAUN, B.
- Affiliations
- University of Massachusetts Amherst (US)
- Venue
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
- Published
- 1992-05
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 512???520
- ISSN
- 0195-9131 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2093625864
- Cited by
- 970
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 33 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 13.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ScholarWorks@UMassAmherst (University of Massachusetts Amherst) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Exercise and Physiological Responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology (medical) › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- exercise-induced muscle damage, eccentric exercise, forearm flexor muscles, muscle soreness, muscle swelling, maximal strength, creatine kinase, muscle shortening, recovery time course, neuromuscular factors
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Physiological, Creatine Kinase, Humans, Movement, Muscle Contraction, Muscles, Tensile Strength, Time Factors, Exercise
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