Zooming to Class? Experimental Evidence on College Students’ Online Learning during COVID-19
Open accessAbstract
One persistent question in higher education is the efficacy of online education. In the fall of 2020, we randomized 551 West Point students in a required introductory economics course across 12 instructors to either an online or in-person class as a response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Final grades for online students dropped by 0.215 standard deviations, a result apparent in both assignments and exams and largest for academically at-risk students. A postcourse survey finds that online students struggled to concentrate in class and felt less connected to their instructors and peers. Our results show detrimental effects for online learning. (JEL A22, I12, I23, I26)
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Our relatively sanguine results for synchronous courses in 2021-22, with modest performance decrements observed in synchronous online courses, contrast with those found by Kofoed et al. (2024).
“On the other hand, our relatively sanguine results for synchronous courses in 2021-22, with modest performance decrements observed in synchronous online courses, contrast with those found by Kofoed et al. (2024).”
From Online Student Performance Under Synchronous and Asynchronous Instruction in California Community Colleges (2026) · cites this paper as Kofoed et al. (2024)
Students in synchronous online classes reported poorer concentration on course material and less connection to students and peers.
“Students in synchronous online classes reported poorer concentration on course material and less connection to students and peers (Kofoed et al., 2024).”
From Online Student Performance Under Synchronous and Asynchronous Instruction in California Community Colleges (2026) · cites this paper as Kofoed et al., 2024
A randomized controlled study at West Point during the pandemic found that students randomly assigned to synchronous online versions of courses had lower course grades than those assigned to face-to-face sections.
“Some of the best evidence on synchronous course use comes from a randomized controlled study at West Point during the pandemic, which found that students randomly assigned to synchronous online versions of courses had lower course grades than those assigned to face-to-face sections (Kofoed et al., 2024).”
From Online Student Performance Under Synchronous and Asynchronous Instruction in California Community Colleges (2026) · cites this paper as Kofoed et al., 2024
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Dhuey, E., Furzer, J., Perlman, M., & White, L. A. (2024) · Canadian Public Policy · doi:10.3138/cpp.2022-023 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Valle, N. N., & Valle, L. C. (2024) · HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY JOURNAL OF SCIENCE - SOCIAL SCIENCES · doi:10.46223/hcmcoujs.soci.en.14.1.2769.2024 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Harris, T. F., & Reynolds, C. L. (2024) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s00181-024-02653-5 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Going the distance: Hybrid vocational training for women in Nepal
Janzen, S., Magnan, N., Mullally, C., Sharma, S., & Shrestha, B. S. (2024) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103414 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Impacts of teaching modality on U.S. COVID-19 spread in fall 2020 semesterPreprint
Badruddoza, S., & Amin, M. D. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.10.28.20221986 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
What Is the University-Student Contract?Preprint
Schanzenbach, M. M., & Yuracko, K. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4493261 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Further Reflections on Sustainability in Ophthalmology
Jeng, B. H., Lum, F., & Chan, R. V. P. (2023) · JAMA Ophthalmology · doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2023.3630 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Demand for Online Teaching - Evidence from a Survey ExperimentPreprint
Wiborg, V. S., & Fidjeland, A. K. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4848838 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Disconnecting Women: Gender Disparities in the Impact of Online InstructionPreprint
Shan, X., Zölitz, U., & Backes‐Gellner, U. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5363191 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hart, C. M. D., Baker, R., Hill, M., Alonso, E., & Xu, D. (2026) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-025-09873-3
Tutoring in (Online) Higher Education
Rincke, J. (2021) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.7686
Tutoring in (Online) Higher Education
Rincke, J. (2021) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.7686-1.0
Tutoring in (Online) Higher Education
Rincke, J. (2021) · AEA Randomized Controlled Trials · doi:10.1257/rct.7686-2.0
Educación jurídica y tecnología: El potencial para democratizar el conocimiento y el poder jurídicos
Pearce, R. G., & Lochan, H. (2023) · Latin American Law Review · doi:10.29263/lar10.2023.03
Emotional Design in an Introductory Course: An Initial Exploration
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The price of COVID-19 risk in a public university
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Aguilar, D., Barrantes, R., Agüero, A., & Soberón, A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4527126
The Quality of Online Instruction and Returns to Instructor ExperiencePreprint
Zhang, X., & Atwater, A. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4506986
Digitization and Community ParticipationPreprint
Pocchiari, M., & Roos, J. M. T. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4671557
Cools, A., Esparza, C., & Park, J. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4748765
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Predictors of Student Reenrollment and Graduation During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Wutchiett, D. M., & Logue, A. W. (2024) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-5483-4.ch020
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Does Online Testing Make the Grade? Evidence from a Randomized Controlled Trial
Atwater, A., Rush, M., & Saygin, P. (2024) · Education Finance and Policy · doi:10.1162/edfp_a_00432
Going the Distance: Hybrid Vocational Training for Women in Nepal *Preprint
Janzen, S., Magnan, N., Mullally, C., Sharma, S., & Shrestha, B. S. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4843229
Available means for teachers and students to improve digital competence
(2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/465bfdfc-en
Barriers to digitalisation identified by respondents to the CARNET-OECD survey
(2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/8b92b0c4-en
OECD (2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/beb771d1-en
Population projection for Croatia and selected European countries (2020-2100)
(2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/c9a850f8-en
Participation rate of adults aged 25-64 in education and training (2021)
(2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/c800c83e-en
Development of institutional strategies for digitalisation in Croatian institutions
(2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/bac75af0-en
Digital maturity in Croatian higher education institutions
OECD (2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/597ed325-en
Guidelines for institutions to support digital education strategy development
OECD (2023) · Higher education · doi:10.1787/6aed4fa2-en
- Authors
- Kofoed, M. S., Gebhart, L., Gilmore, D., & Moschitto, R.
- Affiliations
- University of Tennessee at Knoxville (US)
- United States Department of the Army (US)
- United States Military Academy (US)
- Venue
- American Economic Review: Insights
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2024-09-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 324-340
- ISSN
- 2640-205X (ISSN-L)
- 2640-2068
- OpenAlex
- W3161958558
- Cited by
- 125
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 73.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Economic Review Insights (publishedVersion)
- SSRN Electronic Journal (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Econstor (Econstor) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Defense
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education during COVID-19 pandemic
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Social Sciences › Education › Online Learning Methods and Innovations
- Keywords
- online learning, COVID-19 pandemic, university students, economics education, face-to-face teaching, student performance, student engagement, teacher-student relationship, peer connection, higher education
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