A's from Zzzz's? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Achievement of Adolescents
Open accessAbstract
Recent sleep research finds that many adolescents are sleep-deprived because of both early school start times and changing sleep patterns during the teen years. This study identifies the causal effect of school start time on academic achievement by using two policy changes in the daily schedule at the US Air Force Academy along with the randomized placement of freshman students to courses and instructors. Results show that starting the school day 50 minutes later has a significant positive effect on student achievement, which is roughly equivalent to raising teacher quality by one standard deviation. (JEL I23, J13)
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Evidence points to a positive link between later start times and academic performance, but the link may be weak and inconsistent.
“some evidence suggests a positive association between later school start time and academic performance,57,58,60,61,64,81 although the association may be relatively weak55 and not universal.59,67,80”
From School Start Times, Sleep, Behavioral, Health, and Academic Outcomes: a Review of the Literature (2016) · cites this paper as [58]
Among older students, U.S. Air Force Academy freshmen in first-period courses had lower grades.
“Among older students, U.S. Air Force Academy freshmen, students assigned to a first period course and therefore an earlier start to the school day had poorer grades.58”
From School Start Times, Sleep, Behavioral, Health, and Academic Outcomes: a Review of the Literature (2016) · cites this paper as [58]
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- Carrell , Scott E. , Teny Maghakian , and James E. West. 2011. 'A's from Zzzz's? The Causal Effect of School Start Time on the Academic Achievement of Adolescents: Dataset.' American Economic Journal: Economic Policy . http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi = 10.1257/pol.3.3.62.
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Marx, R. A., Tanner‐Smith, E. E., Davison, C., Ufholz, L., Freeman, J., Shankar, R., Newton, L., Brown, R. S., Parpia, A. S., Cozma, I., et al. (2017) · Campbell Systematic Reviews · doi:10.4073/csr.2017.15 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Heissel, J. A., & Norris, S. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2674256 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
High school start times and student achievement: Looking beyond test scores
Lenard, M., Morrill, M. S., & Westall, J. (2020) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2020.101975 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Class meeting frequency, start times, and academic performance
Cotti, C. D., Gordanier, J. M., & Ozturk, O. D. (2017) · Economics of Education Review · doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2017.10.010 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
What affects university image and students’ supportive attitudes: the 4Q Model
Erkan, İ., Ünal, S., & Açikgöz, F. (2021) · Journal of Marketing for HIGHER EDUCATION · doi:10.1080/08841241.2021.1927933 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Attribution bias in major decisions: Evidence from the United States Military Academy
Haggag, K., Patterson, R. W., Pope, N. G., & Feudo, A. (2021) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104445 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
School start time delays and high school educational outcomes: Evidence from the START/LEARN study
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The impact of prerequisites for undergraduate calculus I performance
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The effects of sleep duration on child health and development
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SLEEPWALKING THROUGH SCHOOL: NEW EVIDENCE ON SLEEP AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
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Answering the Bell: High School Start Times and Student Academic Outcomes
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Early to bed and earlier to rise: school, maternal employment, and children’s sleep
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The effects of sleep deprivation and text messaging on pedestrian safety in university students
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Internet Penetration and Human Capital Development in Africa
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- Authors
- Carrell, S. E., Maghakian, T., & West, J. E.
- Affiliations
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- UC Davis, Department of Economics, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616.
- United States Air Force (US)
- ORCID
- West, James E
- Venue
- American Economic Journal: Economic Policy
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2011-08-01
- Volume
- 3
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 62-81
- ISSN
- 1945-7731 (ISSN-L)
- 1945-774X
- OpenAlex
- W2168809016
- Cited by
- 208
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 41.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Economic Journal Economic Policy (publishedVersion)
- Scholar Commons (Santa Clara University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Education › Educational Outcomes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Keywords
- school start time, academic performance, sleep patterns, United States Air Force Academy, teacher quality, causal effects
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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