Brain microbial populations in HIV/AIDS: α-proteobacteria predominate independent of host immune status
Open accessAbstract
The brain is assumed to be a sterile organ in the absence of disease although the impact of immune disruption is uncertain in terms of brain microbial diversity or quantity. To investigate microbial diversity and quantity in the brain, the profile of infectious agents was examined in pathologically normal and abnormal brains from persons with HIV/AIDS [HIV] (n = 12), other disease controls [ODC] (n = 14) and in cerebral surgical resections for epilepsy [SURG] (n = 6). Deep sequencing of cerebral white matter-derived RNA from the HIV (n = 4) and ODC (n = 4) patients and SURG (n = 2) groups revealed bacterially-encoded 16 s RNA sequences in all brain specimens with α-proteobacteria representing over 70% of bacterial sequences while the other 30% of bacterial classes varied widely. Bacterial rRNA was detected in white matter glial cells by in situ hybridization and peptidoglycan immunoreactivity was also localized principally in glia in human brains. Analyses of amplified bacterial 16 s rRNA sequences disclosed that Proteobacteria was the principal bacterial phylum in all human brain samples with similar bacterial rRNA quantities in HIV and ODC groups despite increased host neuroimmune responses in the HIV group. Exogenous viruses including bacteriophage and human herpes viruses-4, -5 and -6 were detected variably in autopsied brains from both clinical groups. Brains from SIV- and SHIV-infected macaques displayed a profile of bacterial phyla also dominated by Proteobacteria but bacterial sequences were not detected in experimentally FIV-infected cat or RAG1⁻/⁻ mouse brains. Intracerebral implantation of human brain homogenates into RAG1⁻/⁻ mice revealed a preponderance of α-proteobacteria 16 s RNA sequences in the brains of recipient mice at 7 weeks post-implantation, which was abrogated by prior heat-treatment of the brain homogenate. Thus, α-proteobacteria represented the major bacterial component of the primate brain's microbiome regardless of underlying immune status, which could be transferred into naïve hosts leading to microbial persistence in the brain.
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The same bacterial sequences were detected in the brains of immunocompromised mice, weeks after human brain tissue transplantation but not in mice given heat-treated tissue, suggesting the bacterial sequences in the human brain samples were viable.
“The same bacterial sequences were detected in the brains of immunocompromised mice, weeks after human brain tissue transplantation but not in mice given heat-treated tissue, suggesting the bacterial sequences in the human brain samples were viable [133].”
From What would it take to prove that a chronic infection is a causal agent in Alzheimer’s disease? (2025) · cites this paper as [133]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA pioneering study investigating microbial infiltration into the brains of people living with HIV found bacterial sequences present in both "healthy" and HIV brains at a similar distribution.
“A pioneering study investigating microbial infiltration into the brains of people living with HIV, found bacterial sequences present in both “healthy” and HIV brains at a similar distribution [133].”
From What would it take to prove that a chronic infection is a causal agent in Alzheimer’s disease? (2025) · cites this paper as [133]
The Abstract reports bacterial 16S RNA sequences in all sampled brains, with α-proteobacteria predominating across groups and similar bacterial RNA quantities in the HIV and other-disease-control groups. But the comparison brains came from people with other diseases or epilepsy, not healthy participants; the Abstract also says the remaining bacterial classes varied widely. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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“components of the normal flora in Peyer’s patches [33], but members have also been implicated in endocarditis [34], bacteremia [35,36] and meningitis with or without ventriculitis in neonates [37,38], HIV-infected persons [39], other immuno-”
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BackgroundOccurrence of an α-galacturonosyl-ceramide in the dioxin-degrading bacteriumSphingomonas wittichii
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“compromised adults [40] or following invasive surgery [41].”
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“components of the normal flora in Peyer’s patches [33], but members have also been implicated in endocarditis [34], bacteremia [35,36] and meningitis with or without ventriculitis in neonates [37,38], HIV-infected persons [39], other immuno-”
BackgroundInfectious Keratitis Manifesting as a White Plaque on the Cornea
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“For example, an organism similar to many of the 16 s V8 region sequences, Delftia acidovorans has been implicated in endocarditis [27], bacteremia [28,29], corneal keratitis [30] and urinary tract”
BackgroundMeningitis caused by Alcaligenes xylosoxidans in a patient with HIV/AIDS
Espinoza‐Gómez, F., Newton-Sánchez, O. A., Melnikov, V. L., Virgen-González, O., & Unrau, J. (2007) · The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1590/s1413-86702007000600015 · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“components of the normal flora in Peyer’s patches [33], but members have also been implicated in endocarditis [34], bacteremia [35,36] and meningitis with or without ventriculitis in neonates [37,38], HIV-infected persons [39], other immuno-”
BackgroundVogel, T. U., Fournier, J., Sherring, A., Ko, D. S.-W., Parenteau, M., Bogdanovic, D., Mihowich, J., & Rud, E. W. (1998) · Journal of Medical Primatology · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0684.1998.tb00228.x · Cited by 12 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Brain tissues from simian (SIV; n = 10) [48] or simian-human immunodeficiency virus-infected (SHIV; n = 3) [49] or FIVchallenged adult cynomolgus macaques (n = 2) [50] were analyzed by initial preparation of RNA followed by RT-PCR amplification of cDNA and sequencing.”
MethodSelf-citationA case of endocarditis of difficult diagnosis in dialysis: could “pest” friends be involved?
Malek-Marín, T., Arenas, M. D., Perdiguero, M., Salavert, M., Moledous, A., Cotilla, E., & Gil, M. T. (2009) · Clinical Nephrology · doi:10.5414/cnp72405 · Cited by 11 · cited 1× · see citing works
“components of the normal flora in Peyer’s patches [33], but members have also been implicated in endocarditis [34], bacteremia [35,36] and meningitis with or without ventriculitis in neonates [37,38], HIV-infected persons [39], other immuno-”
BackgroundManjra, A. I., Moosa, A., & Bhamjee, A. (1989) · PubMed · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Salha, M.-D., Cheynier, R., Halwani, R., McGrath, H., Langaee, T. Y., Yassine‐Diab, B., Fournier, J., Parenteau, M., Edgar, J. B., Ko, D. S.-W., et al. (2008) · Virology · doi:10.1016/j.virol.2008.04.031 · Cited by 4 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Brain tissues from simian (SIV; n = 10) [48] or simian-human immunodeficiency virus-infected (SHIV; n = 3) [49] or FIVchallenged adult cynomolgus macaques (n = 2) [50] were analyzed by initial preparation of RNA followed by RT-PCR amplification of cDNA and sequencing.”
MethodSelf-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [26]Benndorf D, Babel W (2002) Assimilatory detoxification of herbicides by Delftia acidovorans MC1: induction of two chlorocatechol 1,2-dioxygenases as a response to chemostress. Microbiology 148: 2883– 2888. 12213933
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Reagent and laboratory contamination can critically impact sequence-based microbiome analyses
Salter, S. J., Cox, M. J., Turek, E. M., Calus, S. T., Cookson, W. O., Moffatt, M. F., Turner, P., Parkhill, J., Loman, N. J., & Walker, A. W. (2014) · BMC Biology · doi:10.1186/s12915-014-0087-z · Cited by 3,463 · see citing works
“Many recent publications [19-37] describe important or core microbiota members, often members that are biologically unexpected, which overlap with previouslydescribed contaminant genera.”
BackgroundContamination in Low Microbial Biomass Microbiome Studies: Issues and Recommendations
Eisenhofer, R., Minich, J. J., Marotz, C., Cooper, A., Knight, R., & Weyrich, L. S. (2019) · Trends in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.tim.2018.11.003 · Cited by 1,146 · see citing works
The role of microbiome in central nervous system disorders
Wang, Y., & Kasper, L. H. (2014) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2013.12.015 · Cited by 803 · see citing works
“Interestingly, microbiota have been identified within immune-privileged sites such as the CNS. a-proteobacteria class is reported to be the major commensals persistent http:// in the human brain regardless of immune status (Branton et al., 2013).”
The microbiome of the urinary tract—a role beyond infection
Whiteside, S. A., RAZVI, H. A., Davé, S., Reid, G., & Burton, J. P. (2015) · Nature Reviews Urology · doi:10.1038/nrurol.2014.361 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
“(2013)27 Healthy men (6) Healthy women (10) Jonquetella, Parvimonas, Proteiniphilum, Saccharofermentans”
BackgroundGram-negative bacterial molecules associate with Alzheimer disease pathology
Zhan, X., Stamova, B., Jin, L.-W., DeCarli, C., Phinney, B., & Sharp, F. R. (2016) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000003391 · Cited by 521 · see citing works
“Our findings complement a recent RNAseq study that showed bacterially encoded 16s RNA sequences in all human brains with Gram-negativea-Proteobacteria representing over 70% of bacterial sequences.(16) The other 30% of bacterial classes varied widely, with g-Proteobacteria, including E coli, being present at ,5% of tot…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialZhan, X., Stamova, B. S., & Sharp, F. R. (2018) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2018.00042 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Septic-Associated Encephalopathy: a Comprehensive Review
Mazeraud, A., Righy, C., Bouchereau, E., Benghanem, S., Bozza, F. A., & Sharshar, T. (2020) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-020-00862-1 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
“Thus, targeting microbiota in the ICU could be a relevant therapy in the future [47, 48].”
BackgroundTryptophan Metabolism by Gut Microbiome and Gut-Brain-Axis: An in silico Analysis
Kaur, H., Bose, C., & Mande, S. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01365 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
16S rRNA Next Generation Sequencing Analysis Shows Bacteria in Alzheimer’s Post-Mortem Brain
Emery, D. C., Shoemark, D. K., Batstone, T. E., Waterfall, C. M., Coghill, J. A., Cerajewska, T. L., Davies, M., West, N. X., & Allen, S. J. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00195 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
“…studies: massively parallel sequencing of cDNA generated from total RNA from surgically removed brain samples and post-mortem material, yielding total human cDNA sequences as well as microbial sequences (Branton et al., 2013) and specifically 16S rRNA-directed-NGS on blood (Paisse et al., 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Urinary Tract Microbiome in Health and Disease
Aragón, I. M., Herrera‐Imbroda, B., Queipo‐Ortuño, M. I., Castillo, E., Moral, J. S.-G. D., Gómez‐Millán, J., Yucel, G., & Lara, M. F. (2016) · European Urology Focus · doi:10.1016/j.euf.2016.11.001 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Chronic Meningitis Investigated via Metagenomic Next-Generation Sequencing
Wilson, M. R., O’Donovan, B. D., Gelfand, J. M., Sample, H. A., Chow, F. C., Betjemann, J. P., Shah, M. P., Richie, M. B., Gorman, M., Hajj‐Ali, R. A., et al. (2018) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.0463 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
The gut microbiome in Alzheimer’s disease: what we know and what remains to be explored
Chandra, S., Sisodia, S. S., & Vassar, R. J. (2023) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s13024-023-00595-7 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Shoemark, D. K., & Allen, S. J. (2014) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-141170 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Lluch, J., Servant, F., Païssé, S., Valle, C., Valière, S., Kuchly, C., Vilchez, G., Donnadieu, C., Courtney, M., Burcelin, R., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142334 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“However, this observation, which was not possible before the development of next generation sequencing, is in accordance with previous studies that analyzed brain tissue from immunodepressive humans and rodents [60].”
ResultTohidpour, A., Morgun, A. V., Boitsova, E. B., Malinovskaya, N. A., Martynova, G. P., Хилажева, Е. Д., Kopylevich, N. V., Gertsog, G. E., & Salmina, A. B. (2017) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2017.00276 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Antibiotic use during pregnancy: how bad is it?
Kuperman, A. A., & Koren, O. (2016) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-016-0636-0 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Fantastic voyage: the journey of intestinal microbiota-derived microvesicles through the body
Stentz, R., Carvalho, A. L., Jones, E. J., & Carding, S. R. (2018) · Biochemical Society Transactions · doi:10.1042/bst20180114 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
A Budding Relationship: Bacterial Extracellular Vesicles in the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis
Haas‐Neill, S., & Forsythe, P. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21238899 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“It must be noted that another possible explanation for these findings is the direct colonization of the brain by these bacteria for which there is some evidence [137,138].”
BackgroundThe primate vaginal microbiome: Comparative context and implications for human health and disease
Stumpf, R. M., Wilson, B. A., Rivera, A. J., Yıldırım, S., Yeoman, C. J., Polk, J. D., White, B. A., & Leigh, S. R. (2013) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.22395 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Role of Microbiota-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Gut-Brain Communication
Cuesta, C. M., Guerri, C., Ureña, J., & Pascual, M. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22084235 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Microbiome or Infections: Amyloid-Containing Biofilms as a Trigger for Complex Human Diseases
Miller, A. L., Bessho, S., Grando, K. C. M., & Tükel, Ç. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.638867 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Polymicrobial Infections In Brain Tissue From Alzheimer’s Disease Patients
Pisa, D., Alonso, R., Fernández-Fernández, A. M., Rábano, A., & Carrasco, L. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-05903-y · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Bacterial Dissemination to the Brain in Sepsis
Singer, B. H., Dickson, R. P., Denstaedt, S. J., Newstead, M. W., Kim, K., Falkowski, N. R., Erb‐Downward, J. R., Schmidt, T. M., Huffnagle, G. B., & Standiford, T. J. (2017) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.201708-1559oc · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Although a previous study examined human brain microbiota using culture-independent techniques, it included patients with a heterogeneous group of infections and acute brain pathologies (64).”
ResultInvited Review: From nose to gut – the role of the microbiome in neurological disease
Bell, J. S., Spencer, J. I., Yates, R. L., Yee, S. A., Jacobs, B. M., & DeLuca, G. C. (2018) · Neuropathology and Applied Neurobiology · doi:10.1111/nan.12520 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
The gut–brain axis in irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease
Ancona, A., Petito, C., Iavarone, I., Petito, V., Galasso, L., Leonetti, A., Turchini, L., Belella, D., Ferrarese, D., Addolorato, G., et al. (2020) · Digestive and Liver Disease · doi:10.1016/j.dld.2020.11.026 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Liver transplant modulates gut microbial dysbiosis and cognitive function in cirrhosis
Bajaj, J. S., Fagan, A., Sikaroodi, M., White, M. B., Sterling, R. K., Gilles, H., Heuman, D. M., Stravitz, R. T., Matherly, S. C., Siddiqui, M. S., et al. (2017) · Liver Transplantation · doi:10.1002/lt.24754 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Brain microbiota disruption within inflammatory demyelinating lesions in multiple sclerosis
Branton, W. G., Lu, J., Surette, M. G., Holt, R. A., Lind, J. C., Laman, J. D., & Power, C. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep37344 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationAlonso, R., Pisa, D., Aguado, B., & Carrasco, L. (2017) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170058 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“It has been observed that brain tissue from control subjects also contains bacterial DNA [25].”
Early Life Experience and Gut Microbiome
Cong, X. S., Henderson, W. A., Graf, J., & McGrath, J. M. (2015) · Advances in Neonatal Care · doi:10.1097/anc.0000000000000191 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Yang, L., Poles, M. A., Fisch, G. S., Ma, Y., Nossa, C. W., Phelan, J. A., & Pei, Z. (2015) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/qad.0000000000000935 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Besides the distal gut microbiome, high-throughput sequencing has been used to examine the effects of HIV infection on the microbiomes in the vagina [29–31], lung [32], mouth [33,34], semen [35], and anus [36] as well as in normally sterile body sites such as the brain [37] and blood [38,39], but not in the proximal g…”
MethodGut Microbiota, an Additional Hallmark of Human Aging and Neurodegeneration
Molinero, N., Antón‐Fernández, A., Hernández, F., Ávila, J., Bartolomé, B., & Moreno-Arribas, M. V. (2023) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.02.014 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“Branton et al., have described a-proteobacteria as the predominant phylum of bacteria present in the human brain (Branton et al., 2013).”
BackgroundOur (Mother’s) Mitochondria and Our Mind
Krämer, P., & Bressan, P. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617718356 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“, 2015), populate each of us in places as supremely personal as our mouth, armpits, gut, genitals—and brain (Branton et al., 2013).”
BackgroundBacterial Peptidoglycan as a Driver of Chronic Brain Inflammation
Laman, J. D., Hart, B. A. ‘., Power, C., & Dziarski, R. (2020) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2019.11.006 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Self-citationTowards precision quantification of contamination in metagenomic sequencing experiments
Zinter, M. S., Mayday, M. Y., Ryckman, K. K., Jelliffe‐Pawlowski, L. L., & DeRisi, J. L. (2019) · Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s40168-019-0678-6 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Tumor microbiome – an integral part of the tumor microenvironment
Čierniková, S., Ševčíková, A., Števurková, V., & Mego, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.1063100 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Mamik, M. K., Asahchop, E. L., Chan, W. F., Zhu, Y., Branton, W. G., McKenzie, B., Cohen, É. A., & Power, C. (2016) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1287-16.2016 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Slides were imaged using a Zeiss Axioskope 2 upright microscope (Branton et al., 2013).”
MethodSelf-citationHow do probiotics and prebiotics function at distant sites?
Reid, G., Abrahamsson, T., Bailey, M. T., Bindels, L. B., Bubnov, R. V., Ganguli, K. A., Martoni, C., O’Neill, C. A., Savignac, H. M., Stanton, C., et al. (2017) · Beneficial Microbes · doi:10.3920/bm2016.0222 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Self-citationBile acids and neurological disease
Hurley, M. J., Bates, R., Macnaughtan, J., & Schapira, A. H. V. (2022) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108311 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Although extremely controversial, some groups have proposed that the brain may have its own microbiome mostly consisting ofα-proteobacteria (Branton et al., 2013) or of novel brainmicrobes (Link, 2021).”
BackgroundProal, A. D., & Marshall, T. G. (2018) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2018.00373 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
“(91) identified hundreds of bacteria and bacteriophage-derived samples in brain tissue removed from patients with epilepsy, and in brain samples obtained fromHIV/AIDS patients after autopsy.”
BackgroundSTROBE-metagenomics: a STROBE extension statement to guide the reporting of metagenomics studies
Bharucha, T., Oeser, C., Balloux, F., Brown, J. R., Carbo, E. C., Charlett, A., Chiu, C. Y., Claas, E. C. J., de Goffau, M. C., de Vries, J. J. C., et al. (2020) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30199-7 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Logan, A. C., Katzman, M. A., & Balanzá‐Martínez, V. (2015) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-015-0041-y · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Asahchop, E. L., Méziane, O., Mamik, M. K., Chan, W. F., Branton, W. G., Resch, L., Gill, M. J., Haddad, É., Guimond, J. V., Wainberg, M. A., et al. (2017) · Retrovirology · doi:10.1186/s12977-017-0370-5 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“RNA and DNA preparation Total RNA and DNA were extracted from brain of BLT mice and HIV-infected and non-infected patients using the RNeasy and DNeasy kits (Qiagen Germantown MD, USA), respectively, according to manufacturer’s instructions and as previously described [18, 63].”
MethodSelf-citationLink, C. D. (2021) · Neuroscience Insights · doi:10.1177/26331055211018709 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Xie, L., Wu, Q., Li, K., Khan, M. A. S., Zhang, A., Sinha, B., Li, S., Chang, S. L., Brody, D. L., Grinstaff, M. W., et al. (2024) · Aging and Disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2024.0134 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“In addition, in the brain specimens of AD patients, results from 16s rRNA sequencing reveal that over 70% of bacteria are LPS+ α-proteobacteria [146].”
ResultNasal Microbiota, Olfactory Health, Neurological Disorders and Aging—A Review
Thangaleela, S., Sivamaruthi, B. S., Kesika, P., Bharathi, M., & Chaiyasut, C. (2022) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms10071405 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria are the most predominant in the brain; any disruption may cause CNS disorders [154].”
BackgroundPeriodontitis: a potential risk factor for Alzheimer's disease
Cerajewska, T., Davies, M., & West, N. (2015) · BDJ · doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.2014.1137 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Disruption of gut homeostasis by opioids accelerates HIV disease progression
Meng, J., Sindberg, G. M., & Roy, S. (2015) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00643 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Implications of the Human Gut–Brain and Gut–Cancer Axes for Future Nanomedicine
Javed, I., Cui, X., Wang, X., Mortimer, M., Andrikopoulos, N. K., Li, Y., Davis, T. P., Zhao, Y., Ke, P. C., & Chen, C. (2020) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.0c07258 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The role of the microbiota in glaucoma
Huang, L., Hong, Y., Fu, X., Tan, H., Chen, Y., Wang, Y., & Chen, D. (2023) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2023.101221 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Logan, A. C., Katzman, M. A., & Balanzá‐Martínez, V. (2015) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-014-0040-4 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Had he lived long enough to see the dismantling of common myths, such as those which presumed bodily compartments such as the female womb during pregnancy is sterile [98], that the vascular endothelium and subepidermal regions are sterile in healthy adults, or that soil/ water-derived microbes cannot be found in the b…”
BackgroundZhai, X., Qiu, Z., Wang, L., Luo, Y., He, W., & Yang, J. (2022) · Toxins · doi:10.3390/toxins14100682 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Many recent evidences have suggested that Proteobacteria might be involved in intestinal microbial translocation and damage in HIV-infected patients, and the high abundance of which was found to cause hypoimmunity in the body [37].”
BackgroundDietary fiber ameliorates sleep disturbance connected to the gut–brain axis
Tang, M., Song, X., Zhong, W., Xie, Y., Liu, Y., & Zhang, X. (2022) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d2fo01178f · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Human and Microbial Proteins From Corpora Amylacea of Alzheimer’s Disease
Pisa, D., Alonso, R., Marina, A., Rábano, A., & Carrasco, L. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-28231-1 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Metagenomics: A New Way to Illustrate the Crosstalk between Infectious Diseases and Host Microbiome
Zhang, Y., Lun, C.-Y., & Tsui, S. K. (2015) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms161125957 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Moreover, the profiles of the microbiome in HIV infected subjects and other controls have also been portrayed in the brain, which is another organ considered to be sterile, previously [71].”
BackgroundUterine microbiome—low biomass and high expectations†
Garcia-Grau, I., Simón, C., & Moreno, I. (2018) · Biology of Reproduction · doi:10.1093/biolre/ioy257 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Mohammadzadeh, N., Roda, W. C., Branton, W. G., Clain, J. A., Rabezanahary, H., Zghidi‐Abouzid, O., Gelman, B. B., Angel, J. B., Cohen, É. A., Gill, M. J., et al. (2021) · mBio · doi:10.1128/mbio.02784-21 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationLathe, R., Schultek, N. M., Balin, B. J., Ehrlich, G. D., Alberi, L. A., Perry, G. L., Breitschwerdt, E. B., Corry, D. B., Doty, R. L., Rissman, R. A., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.13076 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Proal, A. D., & VanElzakker, M. B. (2020) · Immunometabolism · doi:10.20900/immunometab20210003 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Neurotrophic pathogens have also been tied to the development of Parkinson’s disease, myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME/CFS) [152,153], multiple sclerosis [154], schizophrenia, and even epilepsy [155].”
BackgroundProgrammed ageing: decline of stem cell renewal, immunosenescence, and Alzheimer's disease
Lathe, R., & Clair, D. S. (2023) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12959 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Therapeutic Potential of the Microbiome in the Treatment of Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Evrensel, A., Ünsalver, B. Ö., & Ceylan, M. E. (2019) · Medical Sciences · doi:10.3390/medsci7020021 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that the brain is not sterile and that a “brain microbiota” may also exist [16,17].”
BackgroundDeciphering psychobiotics’ mechanism of action: bacterial extracellular vesicles in the spotlight
Bleibel, L., Dziomba, S., Waleron, K., Kowalczyk, E., & Karbownik, M. S. (2023) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2023.1211447 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This mechanism of action is also common for viruses’ (size 20–200 nm) ability to reach and infect the brain (Wurdinger et al., 2012; Branton et al., 2013).”
BackgroundIshaq, H. M., Yasin, R., Mohammad, I. S., Yang, F., Li, H., Shahzad, M., & Xu, J. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30494 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“As the brain is a sterile organ, numerous studies have been reported on non-etiological and pathological human brain specimens which unveil the high abundance of phylum Proteobacteria [53].”
BackgroundBalcom, E., Roda, W. C., Cohen, É. A., Li, M., & Power, C. (2019) · Current Opinion in Virology · doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2019.06.004 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Of particular interest, the discovery of peptidoglycan in the brains of HIV/AIDS patients with and without neurocognitive deficits [53] has ignited interest in the role of microbial translocation into the brain in neurological disease [54,55], including HAND.”
BackgroundSelf-citationBrain-inhabiting bacteria and neurodegenerative diseases: the “brain microbiome” theory
Arabi, T. Z., Alabdulqader, A. A., Sabbah, B. N., & Ouban, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1240945 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Kim, M. S., & Jung, S. I. (2021) · International Neurourology Journal · doi:10.5213/inj.2040174.087 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Advances in molecular biology techniques and cultivation methods have enabled the detection of certain microbial communities associated with some body parts previously thought to be sterile, including the urinary tract [12-16].”
BackgroundRich, S. N., Klann, E. M., Bryant, V. E., Richards, V. L., Wijayabahu, A. T., BRYANT, K. J., Mai, V., & Cook, R. L. (2020) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2020.100168 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The Potential Role of Urinary Microbiome in Benign Prostate Hyperplasia/Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms
Yu, S. H., & Jung, S. I. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics12081862 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Pallen, M. J. (2016) · Microbial Biotechnology · doi:10.1111/1751-7915.12389 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…they do not fully understand and then naively interpreting results without engaging the healthy scepticism of the seasoned expert (Bhatt et al. , 2013; Branton et al. , 2013; Laurence et al. , 2014; Salter et al. , 2014; Strong et al. , 2014; Ackelsberg et al. , 2015; Afshinnekoo et al. , 2015).”
BackgroundFecal Microbiota Transplantation and the Brain Microbiota in Neurological Diseases
Ruggiero, M. (2016) · Clinical Endoscopy · doi:10.5946/ce.2016.098 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This latter observation further highlights the role of the immune system in connecting the gut microbiota with the brain microbiota.(4) We recently demonstrated that alterations of brain lymphatic drainage may be responsible for the lesions in the brains of autistic children,(5,6) and it can be hypothesized that such…”
BackgroundMeeker, R. B., & Hudson, L. C. (2017) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci4010014 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Recent studies have addressed important issues such as mechanisms of FIV transmission, replication and evolution [22–27], FIV vaccine efficacy [28,29], the role of neutralizing antibodies in disease progression [28,30,31], virus assembly and release [32,33], viral latency and eradication strategies [34–36], developmen…”
BackgroundEmery, D. C., Davies, M., Cerajewska, T. L., Taylor, J., Hazell, M., Paterson, A. R., Allen, S. J., & West, N. X. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.1026260 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“coli) has been detected in post-mortem brain, and was found to be the dominant species in normal control samples (Branton et al., 2013), and increased in AD brain, where it was identified as the pathogenic strain K99 (Zhan et al.”
BackgroundVaccines and Dementia: Part II. Efficacy of BCG and Other Vaccines Against Dementia
Greenblatt, C. L., & Lathe, R. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-231323 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“In addition, bacteria in AD brain have been further characterized by direct culture in vitro [46, 47], and bacterial infection could be transmitted by intracerebral inoculation of mice with human brain material [25].”
BackgroundThe remarkable complexity of the brain microbiome in health and diseasePreprint
Hu, X., McKenzie, C.-A., Smith, C., Haas, J., & Lathe, R. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.02.06.527297 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Kriesel, J. D., Bhetariya, P. J., Wang, Z., Renner, D. R., Palmer, C. A., & Fischer, K. F. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-38198-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Umlauf, A., Soontornniyomkij, B., Sundermann, E. E., Gouaux, B. D., Ellis, R. J., Levine, A. J., Moore, D. J., & Soontornniyomkij, V. (2019) · AIDS · doi:10.1097/qad.0000000000002336 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“In HIV disease, HIV1-derived proteins or other microbes [44] may enhance neuronal production of Ab.”
BackgroundSaito, L. B., Fernandes, J. P., Smith, M. J., Doan, M. A. L., Branton, W. G., Schmitt, L. M., Wuest, M., Monaco, M. C., Major, E. O., Wuest, F., et al. (2021) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23896 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The cDNA libraries were subjected to massive parallel sequencing, as previously described (Branton et al., 2013; Moore et al., 2011).”
MethodSelf-citationRosales, S., & Thurber, R. L. V. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0143944 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Our findings are in line with previous brain metagenomes that reported Proteobacteria to be the most abundant phylum in human and nonhuman primate brains regardless of health state [41] .”
ResultNa, S., Duan, X., Wang, R., Fan, Y., Xue, K., Tian, S., Yang, Z., Li, K., & Yue, J. (2021) · Journal of Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s12031-020-01758-7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
From conifers to cognition: Microbes, brain and behavior
Lathe, R., & Clair, D. S. (2020) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12680 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Beyond the Gut, Emerging Microbiome Areas of Research: A Focus on Early-Life Microbial Colonization
Vemuri, R., & Herath, M. P. (2023) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms11020239 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“provided some evidence of microbes in the brain (neurobiome) of HIV/AIDS patients [75].”
BackgroundChrobak, A. A., Nowakowski, J., & Dudek, D. (2016) · Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy · doi:10.12740/app/62962 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“even the immune-privileged CNS appears to be persistently inhabited by innocuous alpha-proteobacteria [24] Commensal microbiota modulates the autoreactivity of immune cells against”
BackgroundAyan, E. B., DeMi̇rci̇, H., Serdar, M. A., Palermo, F., & Baykal, A. T. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241612819 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Natural Plasmids in a Swiss Fermented Milk and Colostrum Product assessed by Microbiome Array
Pacini, S., & Ruggiero, M. (2019) · Madridge Journal of Immunology · doi:10.18689/mjim-1000123 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Today’s research on the role of the microbiota confirms the intuition of our ancestors who exploited the health benefits of fermented foods and beverages; we are learning that microbes are essential constituents of our bodies and, possibly, our minds since the brain itself has its own unique microbiota [3].”
BackgroundDasram, M. H., Naidoo, P., Walker, R. B., & Khamanga, S. M. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25031371 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…and non-pathological human brain samples were observed and revealed that Proteobacteria was the most abundant phylum present in all brain samples while members of the Firmicutes , Proteobacteria , and Bacteroidetes were identified in human and mouse brains under non-infectious conditions [78,79].”
BackgroundHu, X., Haas, J., & Lathe, R. (2022) · BMC Microbiology · doi:10.1186/s12866-022-02671-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Pathogenesis Mediated by Bacterial Membrane Vesicles
Gilmore, W. J., Bitto, N. J., & Kaparakis‐Liaskos, M. (2021) · Sub-cellular biochemistry/Subcellular biochemistry · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-67171-6_6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Branton, W. G., Fernandes, J. P., Mohammadzadeh, N., Doan, M. A. L., Laman, J. D., Gelman, B. B., Fagrouch, Z. C., Kondova, I. I., Mooij, P., Koopman, G., et al. (2022) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2022.09.019 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“, endotoxin) in the human brain including patients with HIV-1 (Branton et al., 2013), multiple sclerosis (Branton et al.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationNorins, L. (2019) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2019.04.019 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Simon, R. A., Ranasinghe, P. D., Barazanji, N., Jungeström, M. B., Xu, J., Bednarska, O., Serrander, L., Engström, M., Bazylinski, D. A., Keita, Å. V., et al. (2021) · Journal of Oceanology and Limnology · doi:10.1007/s00343-021-0495-1 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Periodontitis: a potential risk factor for Alzheimer's disease
Cerajewska, T. L., Davies, M., & West, N. X. (2016) · BDJ Team · doi:10.1038/bdjteam.2016.62 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Microbiome-Induced Autoimmunity and Novel Therapeutic Intervention
Evrensel, A. (2023) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7376-5_4 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
A brain microbiome in salmonids at homeostasis
Mani, A., Henn, C., Couch, C. E., Patel, S., Lieke, T., Chan, J. T. H., Korytář, T., & Salinas, I. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.ado0277 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
John, D. V. (2022) · Tropical biomedicine · doi:10.47665/tb.39.4.002 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…and Bacteroidetes, suggesting that the brain is tolerant to the presence of certain microbes and they have a beneficial organ-specific adaptation (Branton et al., 2013) It is believed that these commensal flora in the brain might be outcompeted by hostile/non-beneficial microbes introduced from…”
BackgroundMohammadzadeh, N., Zhang, N., Branton, W. G., Zghidi‐Abouzid, O., Cohen, É. A., Gelman, B. B., Estaquier, J., Kong, L., & Power, C. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15020316 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationSetting higher standards for reports of microbial species in human cancers
Salzberg, S. L., Chia, M., Tay, C. Y., de Miranda, N. F. C. C., Smit, V. T. H. B. M., Wesseling, J., Irizarry, R. A., Marshall, B. J., Willerslev, E., Neefjes, J., et al. (2026) · Nature Cancer · doi:10.1038/s43018-026-01121-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Exploring the patient-microbiome interaction patterns for pan-cancer
Zhao, L., Cho, W. C. S., & Luo, J. (2022) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2022.06.012 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Alphaproteobacteria has been identi-fied to be the dominant phyla in the primate brain microbiome [72].”
BackgroundDoes menaquinone participate in brain astrocyte electron transport?
Lovern, D., & Marbois, B. N. (2013) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2013.07.008 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Microbes in food to treat and prevent disease
Reid, G. (2018) · Expert Review of Precision Medicine and Drug Development · doi:10.1080/23808993.2018.1429217 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“What if breast cancer and glioblastoma were propagated by bacteria or viruses in the tissue, and antimicrobial agents could not eradicate them? What if we discovered that the greatest enemy of the pathogens was other microbes, and that implanting them into the tissues caused a demise of the perpetrators? Currently, su…”
BackgroundPhage-Microbiota Crosstalk: Implications for Central Nervous System Disorders
Salari, V., Parrella, E., Mengoni, F., Cintra, L., Bertini, G., & Fabene, P. F. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26136183 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Furthermore, most bacteriophage sequences identified matched Proteobacteria-tropic phage sequences; however, bacteriophage sequences were not detected in the SURG samples [229].”
Hypothesis of a potential BrainBiota and its relation to CNS autoimmune inflammation
Elkjaer, M. L., Simon, L. M., Frisch, T., Bente, L.-M., Kacprowski, T., Thomassen, M., Reynolds, R., Baumbach, J., Röttger, R., & Illés, Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.1043579 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Branton, W. G., Ellestad, K. K., Maingat, F., Wheatley, B. M., Rud, E., Warren, R. L., Holt, R. A., Surette, M. G., & Power, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Alberta (CA)
- Health Canada (CA)
- BC Cancer Agency (CA)
- McMaster University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Power, Christopher
- ORCID
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2013-01-23
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- e54673
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3552853
- OpenAlex
- W2057381259
- Cited by
- 149
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 4
- FWCI
- 4.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Alberta Innovates
- Health Canada
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research (G118160525)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Virology › HIV Research and Treatment
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Surgery › Infectious Diseases and Tuberculosis
- Keywords
- HIV/AIDS, Alphaproteobacteria, Proteobacteria, bacterial 16S rRNA, peptidoglycan, herpesvirus, bacteriophages, simian immunodeficiency virus, SHIV, FIV, Rag1-deficient mice, microbial persistence, neuroimmune response, epilepsy surgery
- MeSH terms
- Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, Animals, Autopsy, Cats, Female, Humans, Male, Neuroglia, RNA, Bacterial, RNA, Ribosomal, Feline Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, Mice, Knockout, Alphaproteobacteria, Central Nervous System Bacterial Infections, Mice, Cerebrum
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