The skin microbiome

Grice, Elizabeth A.; Segre, Julia A.

doi:10.1038/nrmicro2537

Cited by 3,143Dermatology and Skin DiseasesContact Dermatitis and AllergiesGut microbiota and health

The skin microbiome

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Grice, Elizabeth A., Segre, Julia A.·2011·Nature Reviews Microbiology

DOI 10.1038/nrmicro2537PMC PMC3535073

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Abstract

The skin is the human body's largest organ, colonized by a diverse milieu of microorganisms, most of which are harmless or even beneficial to their host. Colonization is driven by the ecology of the skin surface, which is highly variable depending on topographical location, endogenous host factors and exogenous environmental factors. The cutaneous innate and adaptive immune responses can modulate the skin microbiota, but the microbiota also functions in educating the immune system. The development of molecular methods to identify microorganisms has led to an emerging view of the resident skin bacteria as highly diverse and variable. An enhanced understanding of the skin microbiome is necessary to gain insight into microbial involvement in human skin disorders and to enable novel promicrobial and antimicrobial therapeutic approaches for their treatment.

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AD is associated with increased abundance of S. aureus in lesions, which interferes with host immunity and damages the skin barrier; psoriasis is associated with abnormal colonization of S. aureus and decreased S. epidermidis abundance in psoriatic lesions; seborrheic dermatitis involves Malassezia in its pathogenesis.
“Further examples of disease-microbiota association in human skin are AD (where the increased abundance of S. aureus in the lesions interferes with the host immunity, directly damaging the skin barrier), psoriasis (with abnormal colonization of S. aureus and decrease of S. epidermidis abundance in psoriatic lesions), and seborrheic dermatitis (where the most abundant fungal skin commensal, Malassez”
From Recreating Human Skin In Vitro: Should the Microbiota Be Taken into Account? (2024) · cites this paper as [122]
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High humidity environments can lead to higher sweat and oil production, fostering microbial growth and elevating the risk of skin irritation, infection, and flare-ups of conditions such as eczema.
“In high humidity environments, increased moisture can lead to higher sweat and oil production, fostering microbial growth and elevating the risk of skin irritation, infection, and flare-ups of conditions such as eczema [47].”
From The Environmental Determinants of Skin Health: Linking Climate Change, Air Pollution, and the Dermatologic Disease Burden (2025) · cites this paper as [47]
The Topography and Environmental factors sections report that humid conditions favor microbial growth and are associated with greater bacterial quantities on some skin sites. The paper also discusses infection and eczema in relation to skin microbiota, but it does not establish that high humidity increases sweat or oil production or raises the risk of irritation, infection, or eczema flare-ups. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
The human skin microbiota contains a variety of bacterial species and, unlike the gut microbiota, is mostly made of Gram-positive Actinobacteria (e.g., Cutibacterium spp. and Corynebacterium spp.), including Gram-positive Staphylococcus.
“Genomics-based investigation showed that a variety of different bacterial species coexist in the human skin microbiota, which, in contrast to the gut microbiota, is mostly made of Gram-positive Actinobacteria (e.g., Cutibacterium spp. and Corynebacterium spp.), including the Gram-positive Staphylococcus [122].”
From Recreating Human Skin In Vitro: Should the Microbiota Be Taken into Account? (2024) · cites this paper as [122]
The Molecular analysis of skin microbiota section reports diverse skin bacteria and says Actinobacteria are more abundant on skin than in the gut. The Variation by skin site subsection identifies Corynebacterium and Staphylococcus on skin, but the paper places Actinobacteria and Firmicutes in separate phyla; it does not support describing Staphylococcus as included among Actinobacteria. Our copy uses Propionibacterium rather than Cutibacterium. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Healthy human skin is populated with a characteristic microbiome.
“The healthy human skin is populated with a characteristic microbiome.54”
From Sebaceous-immunobiology is orchestrated by sebum lipids (2017) · cites this paper as [54]
Molecular studies have been unable to identify a unique organism that colonizes wounds of the same general type, for example, in diabetic foot ulcers or venous leg ulcers.
“However, molecular studies have been unable to identify a unique organism that colonizes wounds of the same general type, for example, in diabetic foot ulcers or venous leg ulcers.14”
From The Innate Immune System in Acute and Chronic Wounds (2016) · cites this paper as [14]

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The human skin microbiome
Byrd, A. L., Belkaid, Y., & Segre, J. A. (2018) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/nrmicro.2017.157 · Cited by 2,806 · see citing works
Self-citation
Current understanding of the human microbiome
Gilbert, J. A., Blaser, M. J., Caporaso, J. G., Jansson, J. K., Lynch, S. V., & Knight, R. (2018) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.4517 · Cited by 2,609 · see citing works
The microbiome and cancer
Schwabe, R. F., & Jobin, C. (2013) · Nature Reviews Cancer · doi:10.1038/nrc3610 · Cited by 1,689 · see citing works
Wearable sensors: modalities, challenges, and prospects
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Biogeography and individuality shape function in the human skin metagenome
Program, N. C. S., Oh, J., Byrd, A. L., Deming, C., Conlan, S., Kong, H. H., & Segre, J. A. (2014) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature13786 · Cited by 1,148 · see citing works
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Low-Abundance Biofilm Species Orchestrates Inflammatory Periodontal Disease through the Commensal Microbiota and Complement
Hajishengallis, G., Liang, S., Payne, M. A., Hashim, A., Jotwani, R., Eskan, M. A., McIntosh, M. L., Alsam, A., Kirkwood, K. L., Lambris, J. D., et al. (2011) · Cell Host & Microbe · doi:10.1016/j.chom.2011.10.006 · Cited by 1,154 · see citing works
Compartmentalized Control of Skin Immunity by Resident Commensals
Naik, S., Bouladoux, N., Wilhelm, C., Molloy, M. J., Salcedo, R., Kastenmuller, W., Deming, C., Quinones, M., Koo, L., Conlan, S., et al. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1225152 · Cited by 1,092 · see citing works
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Geography, Ethnicity or Subsistence-Specific Variations in Human Microbiome Composition and Diversity
Gupta, V. K., Paul, S., & Dutta, C. (2017) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.01162 · Cited by 1,019 · see citing works
Microbes, Metabolites, and the Gut-Lung Axis
Dang, A. T., & Marsland, B. J. (2019) · Mucosal Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41385-019-0160-6 · Cited by 1,028 · see citing works
Temporal Stability of the Human Skin Microbiome
Oh, J., Byrd, A. L., Park, M., Kong, H. H., & Segre, J. A. (2016) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.008 · Cited by 1,036 · see citing works
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Microbiomes in light of traits: a phylogenetic perspective
Martiny, J. B. H., Jones, S. E., Lennon, J. T., & Martiny, A. C. (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aac9323 · Cited by 834 · see citing works
Commensal–dendritic-cell interaction specifies a unique protective skin immune signature
Naik, S., Bouladoux, N., Linehan, J. L., Han, S.-J., Harrison, O. J., Wilhelm, C., Conlan, S., Himmelfarb, S., Byrd, A. L., Deming, C., et al. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14052 · Cited by 820 · see citing works
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The Asian atopic dermatitis phenotype combines features of atopic dermatitis and psoriasis with increased TH17 polarization
Noda, S., Suárez-Fariñas, M., Ungar, B., Kim, S. J., de Guzman Strong, C., Xu, H., Peng, X., Estrada, Y. D., Nakajima, S., Honda, T., et al. (2015) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2015.08.015 · Cited by 657 · see citing works
Viral and Bacterial Interactions in the Upper Respiratory Tract
Bosch, A. A. T. M., Biesbroek, G., Trzcinski, K., Sanders, E. A. M., & Bogaert, D. (2013) · PLoS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1003057 · Cited by 651 · see citing works
Early Respiratory Microbiota Composition Determines Bacterial Succession Patterns and Respiratory Health in Children
Biesbroek, G., Tsivtsivadze, E., Sanders, E. A. M., Montijn, R., Veenhoven, R. H., Keijser, B. J. F., & Bogaert, D. (2014) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.201407-1240oc · Cited by 572 · see citing works
New insights into the epidemiology of childhood atopic dermatitis
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The biodiversity hypothesis and allergic disease: world allergy organization position statement
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Whole metagenome profiling reveals skin microbiome-dependent susceptibility to atopic dermatitis flare
Chng, K. R., Tay, A. S. L., Li, C., Ng, A. H. Q., Wang, J., Suri, B. K., Matta, S. A., McGovern, N., Janela, B., Wong, X. F. C. C., et al. (2016) · Nature Microbiology · doi:10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.106 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Compartmentalized and systemic control of tissue immunity by commensals
Belkaid, Y., & Naik, S. (2013) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni.2604 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
An in vivo polymicrobial biofilm wound infection model to study interspecies interactions
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The Lung Microbiome, Immunity, and the Pathogenesis of Chronic Lung Disease
O’Dwyer, D. N., Dickson, R. P., & Moore, B. B. (2016) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1600279 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
The skin microbiome: impact of modern environments on skin ecology, barrier integrity, and systemic immune programming
Prescott, S. L., Larcombe, D.-L., Logan, A. C., West, C., Burks, W., Caraballo, L., Levin, M., Etten, E. V., Horwitz, P., Kozyrskyj, A., et al. (2017) · World Allergy Organization Journal · doi:10.1186/s40413-017-0160-5 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Microbiome in healthy skin, update for dermatologists
Dréno, B., Araviiskaia, E., Berardesca, E., Gontijo, G., Sanchez Viera, M., Xiang, L. F., Martin, R., & Bieber, T. (2016) · Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology · doi:10.1111/jdv.13965 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
The Innate Immune System in Acute and Chronic Wounds
MacLeod, A. S., & Mansbridge, J. N. (2016) · Advances in Wound Care · doi:10.1089/wound.2014.0608 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
Distinct Microbial Signatures Associated With Different Breast Cancer Types
Banerjee, S., Tian, T., Wei, Z., Shih, N., Feldman, M. D., Peck, K. N., DeMichele, A. M., Alwine, J. C., & Robertson, E. S. (2018) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.00951 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
Microbiome dynamics of human epidermis following skin barrier disruption
Zeeuwen, P. L., Boekhorst, J., van den Bogaard, E. H., de Koning, H. D., van de Kerkhof, P. M., Saulnier, D. M., van Swam, I. I., van Hijum, S. A., Kleerebezem, M., Schalkwijk, J., et al. (2012) · Genome Biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2012-13-11-r101 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Molecular Mechanisms of UV-Induced Apoptosis and Its Effects on Skin Residential Cells: The Implication in UV-Based Phototherapy
Lee, C.-H., Wu, S.-B., Hong, C.-H., Yu, H.-S., & Wei, Y.-H. (2013) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms14036414 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
A systematic review of natural products for skin applications: Targeting inflammation, wound healing, and photo-aging
Fernandes, A., Rodrigues, P. M., Pintado, M., & Tavaria, F. K. (2023) · Phytomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2023.154824 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
T cells and the skin: from protective immunity to inflammatory skin disorders
Ho, A. W., & Kupper, T. S. (2019) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/s41577-019-0162-3 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
The impact of skin care products on skin chemistry and microbiome dynamics
Bouslimani, A., da Silva, R., Kosciolek, T., Janssen, S., Callewaert, C., Amir, A., Dorrestein, K., Melnik, A. V., Zaramela, L. S., Kim, J.-N., et al. (2019) · BMC Biology · doi:10.1186/s12915-019-0660-6 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
What lives on our skin: ecology, genomics and therapeutic opportunities of the skin microbiome
Scharschmidt, T. C., & Fischbach, M. A. (2013) · Drug Discovery Today: Disease Mechanisms · doi:10.1016/j.ddmec.2012.12.003 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Spread of airborne antibiotic resistance from animal farms to the environment: Dispersal pattern and exposure risk
Bai, H., He, L.-Y., Wu, D.-L., Gao, F.-Z., Zhang, M., Zou, H.-Y., Yao, M.-S., & Ying, G.-G. (2022) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106927 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Impact of airborne particulate matter on skin: a systematic review from epidemiology to in vitro studies
Dijkhoff, I. M., Drasler, B., Karakocak, B. B., Petri-Fink, A., Valacchi, G., Eeman, M., & Rothen-Rutishauser, B. (2020) · Particle and Fibre Toxicology · doi:10.1186/s12989-020-00366-y · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Targeting the gut‐skin axis—Probiotics as new tools for skin disorder management?
Szántó, M., Dózsa, A., Antal, D., Szabó, K., Kemény, L., & Bai, P. (2019) · Experimental Dermatology · doi:10.1111/exd.14016 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Complement modulates the cutaneous microbiome and inflammatory milieu
Chehoud, C., Rafail, S., Tyldsley, A. S., Seykora, J. T., Lambris, J. D., & Grice, E. A. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1307855110 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Skin Barrier and Moisturization: Function, Disruption, and Mechanisms of Repair
Rajkumar, J., Chandan, N., Lio, P., & Shi, V. (2023) · Skin Pharmacology and Physiology · doi:10.1159/000534136 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Intestinal Microbiota Influences Non-intestinal Related Autoimmune Diseases
Opazo, M. C., Ortega-Rocha, E. M., Coronado-Arrázola, I., Bonifaz, L. C., Boudin, H., Neunlist, M., Bueno, S. M., Kalergis, A. M., & Riedel, C. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.00432 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Sebum and Hydration Levels in Specific Regions of Human Face Significantly Predict the Nature and Diversity of Facial Skin Microbiome
Mukherjee, S., Mitra, R., Maitra, A., Gupta, S., Kumaran, S., Chakrabortty, A., & Majumder, P. P. (2016) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep36062 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Sebaceous-immunobiology is orchestrated by sebum lipids
Lovászi, M., Szegedi, A., Zouboulis, C. C., & Törőcsik, D. (2017) · Dermato-Endocrinology · doi:10.1080/19381980.2017.1375636 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Brain microbial populations in HIV/AIDS: α-proteobacteria predominate independent of host immune status
Branton, W. G., Ellestad, K. K., Maingat, F., Wheatley, B. M., Rud, E., Warren, R. L., Holt, R. A., Surette, M. G., & Power, C. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0054673 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Characterization of human breast tissue microbiota from core needle biopsies through the analysis of multi hypervariable 16S-rRNA gene regions
Costantini, L., Magno, S., Albanese, D., Donati, C., Molinari, R., Filippone, A., Masetti, R., & Merendino, N. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-35329-z · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Melanin Transfer in the Epidermis: The Pursuit of Skin Pigmentation Control Mechanisms
Moreiras, H., Seabra, M. C., & Barral, D. C. (2021) · doi:10.20944/preprints202104.0441.v1 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
A tool kit for quantifying eukaryotic rRNA gene sequences from human microbiome samples
Dollive, S., Peterfreund, G. L., Sherrill-Mix, S., Bittinger, K., Sinha, R., Hoffmann, C., Nabel, C. S., Hill, D. A., Artis, D., Bachman, M. A., et al. (2012) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2012-13-7-r60 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
The esophageal microbiota in health and disease
Di Pilato, V., Freschi, G., Ringressi, M. N., Pallecchi, L., Rossolini, G. M., & Bechi, P. (2016) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13127 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Therapeutic responses to <i>Roseomonas mucosa</i> in atopic dermatitis may involve lipid-mediated TNF-related epithelial repair
Myles, I. A., Castillo, C. R., Barbian, K. D., Kanakabandi, K., Virtaneva, K., Fitzmeyer, E., Paneru, M., Otaizo-Carrasquero, F., Myers, T. G., Markowitz, T. E., et al. (2020) · Science Translational Medicine · doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaz8631 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
The role of the skin and gut microbiome in psoriatic disease
Yan, D., Issa, N., Afifi, L., Jeon, C., Chang, H.-W., & Liao, W. (2017) · Current Dermatology Reports · doi:10.1007/s13671-017-0178-5 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
The role of the microbiome in the neurobiology of social behaviour
Sarkar, A., Harty, S., Johnson, K. V. ‐., Moeller, A. H., Carmody, R. N., Lehto, S. M., Erdman, S. E., Dunbar, R. I. M., & Burnet, P. W. J. (2020) · Biological Reviews · doi:10.1111/brv.12603 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Periodontal pathogens promote cancer aggressivity via TLR/MyD88 triggered activation of Integrin/FAK signaling that is therapeutically reversible by a probiotic bacteriocin
Kamarajan, P., Ateia, I., Shin, J. M., Fenno, J. C., Le, C., Zhan, L., Chang, A., Darveau, R., & Kapila, Y. L. (2020) · PLOS Pathogens · doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1008881 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Pyrosequencing analysis of the human microbiota of healthy Chinese undergraduates
Ling, Z., Liu, X., Luo, Y., Yuan, L., Nelson, K. E., Wang, Y., Xiang, C., & Li, L. (2013) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/1471-2164-14-390 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor in Keratinocytes Is Essential for Murine Skin Barrier Integrity
Haas, K., Weighardt, H., Deenen, R., Köhrer, K., Clausen, B., Zahner, S., Boukamp, P., Bloch, W., Krutmann, J., & Esser, C. (2016) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1016/j.jid.2016.06.627 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
A randomised clinical study to determine the effect of a toothpaste containing enzymes and proteins on plaque oral microbiome ecology
Adams, S. E., Arnold, D., Murphy, B., Carroll, P., Green, A. K., Smith, A. M., Marsh, P. D., Chen, T., Marriott, R. E., & Brading, M. G. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep43344 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Dysbiosis of Skin Microbiota in Psoriatic Patients: Co-occurrence of Fungal and Bacterial Communities
Stehlikova, Z., Kostovcik, M., Kostovcikova, K., Kverka, M., Juzlova, K., Rob, F., Hercogova, J., Bohac, P., Pinto, Y., Uzan, A., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fmicb.2019.00438 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Melanin's Journey from Melanocytes to Keratinocytes: Uncovering the Molecular Mechanisms of Melanin Transfer and Processing
Bento-Lopes, L., Cabaço, L. C., Charneca, J., Neto, M. V., Seabra, M. C., & Barral, D. C. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms241411289 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Wearable sweat sensing for prolonged, semicontinuous, and nonobtrusive health monitoring
Moonen, E. J. M., Haakma, J. R., Peri, E., Pelssers, E., Mischi, M., & den Toonder, J. M. J. (2020) · VIEW · doi:10.1002/viw.20200077 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Reduction in Bacterial Load Using Hypochlorous Acid Hygiene Solution on Ocular Skin
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ИСПОЛЬЗОВAНИЕ ПОТЕНЦИAЛA СОЦИAЛЬНЫХ ПAРТНЕРОВ В ПОДГОТОВКЕ БУДУЩИХ ПЕДAГОГОВ
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Authors: Grice, E. A., & Segre, J. A.
Affiliations: National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Segre, Julia A.
ORCID: Grice, Elizabeth A.
Segre, Julia A.
Venue: Nature Reviews Microbiology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2011-03-16
Volume: 9
Issue: 4
Pages: 244-253
ISSN: 1740-1526 (ISSN-L)
1740-1534
DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro2537
PMC: PMC3535073
OpenAlex: W2047885502
Cited by: 3,143
References: 108
Citations by year: 2026: 198 · 2025: 269 · 2024: 265 · 2023: 287 · 2022: 274 · 2021: 312 · 2020: 282 · 2019: 214 · 2018: 214 · 2017: 200 · 2016: 174 · 2015: 136 · 2014: 120 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 68
FWCI: 16.63
Type: journal article
Language: en
Update notices: erratum (2011-06-27)
Open access: green
europepmc.org
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
www.springer.com/tdm (vor)
Locations: Nature Reviews Microbiology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Human Genome Research Institute (ZIAHG000180)
National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases (AR057504)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Dermatology and Skin Diseases
Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Contact Dermatitis and Allergies
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
Keywords: skin microbiome, skin colonization, host factors, environmental factors, skin diseases, microbial diversity, antimicrobial therapy
MeSH terms: Humans, Immunity, Innate, Skin, Skin Diseases, Infectious, Metagenome, Adaptive Immunity

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