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Cited by 201Planetary Science and ExplorationPlant Growth and Agriculture TechniquesSpace Exploration and Technology

Can Plants Grow on Mars and the Moon: A Growth Experiment on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants

Open access
Wamelink, G. W. Wieger, Frissel, Joep Y., Krijnen, Wilfred H. J., Verwoert, M. Rinie, Goedhart, Paul W.·2014·PLoS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0103138PMC PMC4146463
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Abstract

When humans will settle on the moon or Mars they will have to eat there. Food may be flown in. An alternative could be to cultivate plants at the site itself, preferably in native soils. We report on the first large-scale controlled experiment to investigate the possibility of growing plants in Mars and moon soil simulants. The results show that plants are able to germinate and grow on both Martian and moon soil simulant for a period of 50 days without any addition of nutrients. Growth and flowering on Mars regolith simulant was much better than on moon regolith simulant and even slightly better than on our control nutrient poor river soil. Reflexed stonecrop (a wild plant); the crops tomato, wheat, and cress; and the green manure species field mustard performed particularly well. The latter three flowered, and cress and field mustard also produced seeds. Our results show that in principle it is possible to grow crops and other plant species in Martian and Lunar soil simulants. However, many questions remain about the simulants' water carrying capacity and other physical characteristics and also whether the simulants are representative of the real soils.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a 50-day glasshouse experiment, plants germinated and grew on Mars and moon regolith simulants without added nutrients, with Mars simulant generally outperforming moon simulant and even the nutrient-poor Earth control soil. The authors conclude it is in principle possible to grow crops and other species in these simulants, but many questions remain about simulant representativeness and physical properties.

Key findings

  • Except for Common vetch on moon simulant, all species germinated in some proportion on all three soils; Mars simulant generally had the highest germination and moon simulant the lowest.
  • Biomass at the end of the 50-day experiment was significantly higher for 11 of 14 species on Mars simulant compared with both other soils; for nine species, Earth soil biomass was significantly higher than on moon simulant.
  • Only Field mustard, Rye, and Cress reached flowering; Field mustard (only on Mars) and Cress (on Mars and Earth) also produced seeds.
  • Many germinated plants on moon simulant died or stayed very small, which the authors suggest may relate to high soil pH, water-holding capacity, and/or free aluminium.

Methods

  • The experiment used 840 pots: 3 soil types (Mars simulant, moon simulant, nutrient-poor River Rhine control soil) × 14 species × 20 replicate pots, with 5 seeds per pot (100 seeds per species–soil combination).
  • Pots were kept in a glasshouse for 50 days starting 8 April 2013, at about 20°C (mean 21.1 ± 3.02°C), 65.0 ± 15.5% humidity, 16-hour days, and watered with demineralized water.
  • Germination, leaf formation, flowering, seed setting, and survival were analysed with logistic regression; total, aboveground, and belowground biomass were analysed with ANOVA on log-transformed values, with pairwise tests among soil types.

Limitations

  • The paper states that it is unknown whether the simulants are representative of real Mars and moon soils, and that more research is needed on their water-holding capacity and other physical characteristics.
  • The authors note the experiment was in pots, not full soil, and was conducted on Earth with Earth-like light and atmospheric conditions, so gravity and other extraterrestrial conditions were not tested.
  • The paper states that reactive nitrogen availability, nutrient balance, and possible organic carbon in the Mars simulant remain unresolved; it also did not inoculate or test nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Evident from the text: the study lasted only 50 days, and biomass analyses excluded units with no biomass.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0103138

Cites

37 of 37 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

7 of 37 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    The major source of reactive nitrogen on Earth is the mineralisation of organic matter.

    “The major source of reactive nitrogen on Earth is the mineralisation of organic matter [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] CJ Stevens, 2011, Ecosystem responses to reduced and oxidised nitrogen inputs in European terrestrial habitats, Environmental Pollution source

      The Introduction (p. 2) lists ways reactive nitrogen naturally enters ecosystems, but does not identify the largest source of reactive nitrogen on Earth. Section 3.2 (p. 5) discusses mineralisation as a soil process without making that global comparison. Searches for mineralisation as the major or largest global source found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Nitrogen in reactive form (NO3, NH4) is one of the essential minerals necessary for almost all plant growth.

    “Nitrogen in reactive form (NO3, NH4) is one of the essential minerals necessary for almost all plant growth [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] CJ Stevens, 2011, Ecosystem responses to reduced and oxidised nitrogen inputs in European terrestrial habitats, Environmental Pollution source
  • Interpretationcitation

    The pH of the moon regolith is high enough that it may be problematic for many plant species, especially for crops.

    “The pH of the moon regolith is that high that it may be problematic for many plant species, especially for crops [30].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] GWW Wamelink, 2005, Plant species as predictors of soil pH: replacing expert judgement by measurements, Journal of vegetation Science source

      The indexed copy contains a title and bibliographic material (labeled Abstract), but no substantive discussion of soil pH or plant tolerance. Searches for lunar regolith and for high-pH effects on crops returned no relevant passage, so this copy cannot verify the claim. (LLM, conf=0.70)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    There is no organic matter on Mars, as far as we know.

    “There is no organic matter on Mars [2]–[6], as far as we now, so this would make the Mars simulant we used less suitable for experiments to investigate the potential of Mars soil, unless the experiment has as goal to test the potential of the soil after adding organic matter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [2] E Palomba, 2009, Evidence for Mg-rich carbonates on Mars from a 3.9 lm absorption feature, Icarus source
    • cites [3] Muller O (1974) Solar wind nitrogen and indigenous nitrogen in Apollo 17 lunar samples. Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 5th, Vol. 2, 1907–1918. Pergamon Press. source
    • cites [4] J Parnell, 2005, Extraction of organic signatures from carbonates and evaporites: from mineral deposits to Mars, Proceedings of the Geologists Association source
    • cites [5] A Brack, 1998, Life on Mars: chemical arguments and clues from Martian meteorites, Extremophilest source
    • cites [6] LA Leshin, 2013, Volatile, isotope, and organic analysis of Martian fines with the Mars Curiosity Rover, Science source

      The Organic Matter conclusion (p. 1238937-5) says Martian organic matter was not definitively detected, which supports the narrower point that this analysis did not establish its presence. It does not support the categorical claim that there is no organic matter on Mars: the Organic Matter discussion says traces of Martian or exogenous organic carbon in the Rocknest sample cannot be ruled out. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    Reflexed stonecrop, tomato, wheat, cress, and field mustard performed particularly well.

    “Reflexed stonecrop (a wild plant); the crops tomato, wheat, and cress; and the green manure species field mustard performed particularly well.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 27
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reactive nitrogen may arise as an effect of lightning or volcanic activity, and both processes may occur on Mars.

    “Reactive nitrogen may also arise as an effect of lightning or volcanic activity [8], [9] and both processes may occur on Mars.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [8] LL Golubyatnikov, 2013, Nitrogen cycle in the Earth climatic system and its modeling, Atmospheric and Oceanic Physics source
    • cites [9] PM Vitousek, 2013, Biological nitrogen fixation: rates, patterns and ecological controls in terrestrial ecosystems, Phil Trans R Soc B source

      In its discussion of terrestrial nitrogen inputs (indexed as Abstract; page unavailable), the paper identifies nitrogen fixed by lightning and deposited on land, supporting the lightning part of the cited statement. The available passages do not identify volcanic activity as a source of reactive nitrogen. The Mars clause follows the citations in the citing sentence and is not treated as attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Organic matter is absent on both Mars and moon although they do contain carbon.

    “However organic matter is absent on both Mars and moon although they do contain carbon [2]–[6].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [2] E Palomba, 2009, Evidence for Mg-rich carbonates on Mars from a 3.9 lm absorption feature, Icarus source
    • cites [3] Muller O (1974) Solar wind nitrogen and indigenous nitrogen in Apollo 17 lunar samples. Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 5th, Vol. 2, 1907–1918. Pergamon Press. source
    • cites [4] J Parnell, 2005, Extraction of organic signatures from carbonates and evaporites: from mineral deposits to Mars, Proceedings of the Geologists Association source
    • cites [5] A Brack, 1998, Life on Mars: chemical arguments and clues from Martian meteorites, Extremophilest source
    • cites [6] LA Leshin, 2013, Volatile, isotope, and organic analysis of Martian fines with the Mars Curiosity Rover, Science source

      The Organic Matter section (p. 1238937-5) reports carbon-bearing CO₂ in Martian fines and says Martian organic matter was not definitively detected. That does not establish that organic matter is absent from Mars; the same section says traces of Martian organic carbon cannot be ruled out. The paper does not address whether the Moon contains carbon or organic matter. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nitrogen fixers in symbioses with bacteria are able to bind nitrogen from the air and transform it into nitrates, a process which requires nitrogen in the atmosphere.

    “In symbioses with bacteria [12], [13] these nitrogen fixers are able to bind nitrogen from the air and transform it into nitrates, a process which requires nitrogen in the atmosphere.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] P Mylona, 1995, Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation, Plant Cell source

      The indexed copy shows the article title and a reference list, but says the article's full text is available as a PDF; it does not include the article body (article listing, pp. 869–885). Searches for atmospheric nitrogen and conversion to nitrates found no passage in the available copy that addresses the claimed product of fixation, so the decisive text may be missing. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [13] Foy CD (1984) Physiological Effects of Hydrogen, Aluminum, and Manganese Toxicities in Acid Soil. In: Adams F, editor. Soil Acidity and Liming. pp. 57–97. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Rye, cress and field mustard flowered.

    “Rye, cress and field mustard flowered, the latter two also formed seeds.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “Only three species reach these stages, Field mustard, Rye and Cress (the last two being crops).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The moon regolith simulant is truly nutrient poor, though it contains a small amount of nitrates and ammonium.

    “The analysis revealed that the moon regolith simulant is truly nutrient poor, though it contains a small amount of nitrates and ammonium.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Field mustard formed seeds only on Mars, and Cress formed seeds on Mars and Earth.

    “Field mustard (only on Mars) and Cress (on Mars and Earth) also formed seeds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Mars soil simulant gave the highest biomass production, the moon soil simulant the lowest.

    “The Mars soil simulant gave the highest biomass production, the moon soil simulant the lowest.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Leaf forming occurred most on Martian soil simulant and least on moon soil simulant.

    “Leaf forming occurred most on Martian soil simulant and least on moon soil simulant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The biomass for Earth and moon soil simulant is often quite similar, although for nine species the biomass increment on Earth soil was significantly higher than on moon soil simulant.

    “The biomass for earth and moon soil simulant is often quite similar (Fig. 4), although for nine species the biomass increment on Earth soil was significantly higher than on moon soil simulant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Mars regolith simulant contains traces of nitrates and ammonium, and also a significant amount of carbon.

    “The Mars regolith simulant also contains traces of nitrates of ammonium, and also a significant amount of carbon (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In general the germination percentage on Martian soil simulant is highest and lowest on the moon soil simulant.

    “In general the germination percentage on Martian soil simulant is highest and lowest on the moon soil simulant (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the percentage of plants still alive after 50 days, Martian soil simulant performed best and moon soil simulant worst.

    “Also for the percentage plants still alive after 50 days, Martian soil simulant performed best and moon soil simulant worst.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The presence of a high C-elementary content in the Mars soil simulant is surprising.

    “The presence of a high C-elementary content in the Mars soil simulant is surprising.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Both soils are rather imbalanced for nutrients; the artificial moon soil lacks nitrates, and the artificial Mars soil lacks phosphate.

    “Both soils are rather imbalanced for nutrients; where the artificial moon soil lacks nitrates, the artificial soil lacks of phosphate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Experiments on Earth with brought back moon material indicated that there were no toxic effects of moon soil on short term plant growth.

    “These experiments indicated that there were no toxic effects of moon soil on short term plant growth [18], for an overview see Ferl and Paul [19].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18] PS Baur, 1974, VE Uptake and translocation of elements from Apollo 11 lunar material by lettuce seedlings, Phyton

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] RJ Ferl, 2010, Lunar Plant Biology—A Review of the Apollo Era, Astrobiology source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tagetes patula plants were able to grow on moon rock simulant with and without the addition of bacteria, and were able to blossom.

    “These studies revealed that these plants were able to grow with and without the addition of bacteria [20], [21], and that plants were able to blossom [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [20] NO Kozyrovska, 2006, Growing pioneer plants for a lunar base, Advances in Space Research source
    • cites [21] I Zaets, 2011, Bioaugmentation in growing plants for lunar bases, Advances in Space Research source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reactive nitrogen is part of the material in our solar system and is part of solar wind, a source of reactive nitrogen on the moon and Mars.

    “Reactive nitrogen is part of the material in our solar system and is part of solar wind, a source of reactive nitrogen on the moon and Mars [3], [7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Muller O (1974) Solar wind nitrogen and indigenous nitrogen in Apollo 17 lunar samples. Proc. Lunar Sci. Conf. 5th, Vol. 2, 1907–1918. Pergamon Press. source
    • cites [7] RL Mancinelli, 1996, The search for nitrogen compounds on the surface, Adv Space Res source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Aluminium is known to disturb plant growth and even lead to plant death.

    “Aluminium is known to disturb plant growth and even lead to plant death [14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14] N Garg, 2007, Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legume nodules: process and signalling, Agron Sustain Dev source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Common vetch did not perform very well on Martian soil simulant, which may indicate that inoculation with nitrogen fixing bacteria may be necessary.

    “All chosen nitrogen fixers may perform this function; however Common vetch did not perform very well on Martian soil simulant, which may indicate that inoculation with nitrogen fixing bacteria may be necessary.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The high pH may also explain the lagging growth on the moon soil simulant and also on the Earth soil.

    “The high pH may also explain the lagging growth on the moon soil simulant and also on the Earth soil.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Growth of bacteria on Mars soil simulant is possible, including nitrogen fixing bacteria.

    “Experiments with bacteria on Mars soil simulant revealed that growth is possible, including nitrogen fixing bacteria [22].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22] TA Kral, 2004, Growth of methanogens on a mars soil simulant, Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In general, plants were able to develop at the same rate on Martian and Earth soil simulants, but biomass increment was much higher on Mars simulant.

    “Apparently, in general, plants were able to develop at the same rate on Martian and Earth soil simulants, but biomass increment was much higher on Mars simulant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The poor growth on moon soil simulant may be due to the high soil pH, the moisture holding capacity and/or the free aluminium in the simulant.

    “This may be due to the high soil pH, the moist holding capacity and or the free aluminium in the simulant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The nitrogen fixers may also play a role in detoxifying soils polluted with metals.

    “The nitrogen fixers may also play a role in detoxifying soils polluted with metals [35].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] CD Foy, 1978, The physiology of metal toxicity in plants, Ann Rev Plant Physiol source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The pots were placed in a glasshouse in a completely randomized block design where each block constitutes a replicate.

    “The pots were placed in a glasshouse in a completely randomized block design where each block constitutes a replicate (Fig. 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Only species with relatively small seeds were chosen so that the nutrient stock in the seeds would be quickly depleted and the plant becomes totally dependent on what is available in the soils for its growth.

    “Only species with relatively small seeds were chosen so that the nutrient stock in the seeds would be quickly depleted and the plant becomes totally dependent on what is available in the soils for its growth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Our results are in line with earlier research on Arabidopsis thaliana and Tagetes patula on moon regolith simulant and moon rock simulant, though our results appear to be less promising.

    “Our results are in line with earlier research on Arabidopsis thaliana and Tagetes patula [19]–[21] on moon regolith simulant and moon rock simulant, though our results appear to be less promising.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [19] RJ Ferl, 2010, Lunar Plant Biology—A Review of the Apollo Era, Astrobiology source
    • cites [20] NO Kozyrovska, 2006, Growing pioneer plants for a lunar base, Advances in Space Research source
    • cites [21] I Zaets, 2011, Bioaugmentation in growing plants for lunar bases, Advances in Space Research source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Moist conditions in full soil cultivation will be different from pots and may give rise to different results.

    “Moist conditions will then be different and may give rise to different results between pots and full soil.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The larger water holding capacity of Martian soil simulant may explain its better performance and, partly, the underperformance of moon soil simulant.

    “The larger water holding capacity of Martian soil simulant may explain its better performance and, partly, the underperformance of moon soil simulant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The soil simulants were not inoculated with nitrogen fixing bacteria in this experiment, although the simulants and seeds were not sterilised.

    “We did not inoculate the soil simulants with nitrogen fixing bacteria in this experiment, although we did not sterilise the simulants nor the seeds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Mars soil simulant's ability to hold water best may be partly explained by organic matter, as organic matter is more capable of holding water than bare sand.

    “It may also partly explain why the Mars soil was able to hold water best, as organic matter is more capable of holding water than bare sand.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The standard procedure for organic matter analysis includes baking the soil at 550°C, and part of the oxides, especially iron oxides, evaporates, yielding wrong results.

    “The standard procedure includes backing the soil at 550°C. The problem is that part of the oxides, especially the iron oxides, evaporates as well, clearly yielding wrong results.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Mars simulant used is less suitable for experiments to investigate the potential of Mars soil, unless the experiment aims to test the potential of the soil after adding organic matter.

    “There is no organic matter on Mars [2]–[6], as far as we now, so this would make the Mars simulant we used less suitable for experiments to investigate the potential of Mars soil, unless the experiment has as goal to test the potential of the soil after adding organic matter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
33 of 33

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Plant cultivation will be carried out in closed surroundings with Earth-like light and atmospheric conditions.

    “Moreover, we assumed that plant cultivation will be carried out in closed surroundings with Earth like light and atmospheric conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    All essential minerals for plant growth are present in sufficient quantities in both Mars and moon soils, probably with the exception of reactive nitrogen.

    “All essential minerals for the growth of plants appear to be present in sufficient quantities in both soils probably with the exception of reactive nitrogen.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is no atmosphere on the moon, and on Mars it is only minimally present and contains traces of nitrogen.

    “However, there is no atmosphere on the moon, and on Mars it is only minimally present and contains traces of nitrogen.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Important for plant growth is not only the presence of nutrients, but also the balance between them.

    “Important for plant growth is not only the presence of nutrients, but also the balance between them.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The seeds of the crops Carrot, Cress and Tomato are controlled and have a high quality.

    “The seeds of the crops Carrot, Cress and Tomato are controlled and have a high quality.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Both lunar and Martian regolith lack water-carrying capacity.

    “In addition, both lunar and Martian regolith lack water-carrying capacity (Wamelink et al., 2014).”

    From Spirulina supported plant growth in regolith simulants and elevated levels of CO2 (2025) · cites this paper as Wamelink et al., 2014

    The Discussion (page unavailable) says the Martian soil simulant held water better than the lunar simulant and Earth control, while the lunar simulant dried out fastest. The paper calls for further research on the physical characteristics of actual extraterrestrial soils; it does not establish that both regoliths lack water-holding capacity. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Wamelink et al. showed germination and plant growth using simulant JSC-Mars-1A, including nitrogen fixing plants, but perchlorate was not included.

    “Previously, Wamelink et al. [20] showed germination and plant growth using simulant JSC-Mars-1A, including nitrogen fixing plants; however, perchlorate was not included in the experiments.”

    From Perchlorate and Agriculture on Mars (2021) · cites this paper as [20]

    Materials and Methods (Regoliths; page unavailable) identifies the material as JSC-1A Mars regolith simulant, and the Conclusions report germination and growth on the Mars simulant. Species selection includes nitrogen fixers, but the Discussion says the experiment did not test whether nitrogen-fixing bacteria were present or active. The methods do not list perchlorate among the substances analysed or added, but our copy does not explicitly establish that perchlorate was absent from the experiment. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Works dealing with cultivation on Mars simulants in mix with organic amendment are quite scarce.

    “Works dealing with cultivation on Mars simulants in mix with organic amendment, also to solve the disposal issue of organic effluents in future manned missions to Mars, are quite scarce (Gilrain et al. 1999;Mortley et al. 2000;Wamelink et al. 2014).”

    From Green compost amendment improves potato plant performance on Mars regolith simulant as substrate for cultivation in space (2023) · cites this paper as Wamelink et al. 2014

    The Abstract describes this as the first large-scale controlled plant-growth experiment on Mars and Moon soil simulants, supporting the broader point that such research was limited. But the plants grew without added nutrients; the Discussion proposes manure or human faeces as possible future amendments. The paper does not establish that studies mixing Mars simulants with organic amendments, including studies addressing effluent disposal, were scarce. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Several simulant properties-such as an alkaline pH, a high availability of sodium, the predominance of macro- vs. micropores, and a scant water holding capacity-can influence plant growth, health, and vigor in extra-terrestrial farming.

    “For extra-terrestrial farming, it is wellestablished that several simulant properties-such as an alkaline pH, a high availability of sodium, the predominance of macro-vs.micropores, and a scant water holding capacity-can influence plant growth, health, and vigor (Wamelink et al., 2014;Caporale et al., 2020).”

    From The Potential for Lunar and Martian Regolith Simulants to Sustain Plant Growth: A Multidisciplinary Overview (2022) · cites this paper as Wamelink et al., 2014

    The Discussion (page not provided) says that higher water-holding capacity may explain better growth in Mars simulant and that high pH may explain poor growth in moon simulant. The Conclusions likewise identify pH and moisture retention as possible factors. Our copy does not establish high sodium availability or a predominance of macropores over micropores as influences on plant growth. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The Martian simulant outperformed the Lunar simulant in biomass production in Wamelink et al. (2014), as it had trace levels of ammonium nitrate and carbon and no stressors that could cause a higher pH or low water holding capacity.

    “Nevertheless, the Martian simulant outperformed the Lunar simulant in biomass production, as it had trace levels of ammonium nitrate and carbon and no stressors that could cause a higher pH or low water holding capacity.”

    From The Potential for Lunar and Martian Regolith Simulants to Sustain Plant Growth: A Multidisciplinary Overview (2022) · cites this paper as Wamelink et al., 2014

    The Results report higher biomass on the Martian simulant, and the Discussion says its greater water-holding capacity may explain its better performance. Table 2 reports ammonium, nitrate/nitrite, carbon and a lower pH for the Martian simulant than for the lunar one. The paper does not establish that those nutrients caused the biomass difference or that the Martian simulant had no stressors; its explanation is tentative. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Abstract says wheat flowered, but results say rye

    Minor

    The abstract names wheat among the particularly well-performing crops and says the latter three species flowered. The results instead identify rye, cress and field mustard as the three species that reached flowering; wheat is not listed among the selected species.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. PS Baur, 1974, VE Uptake and translocation of elements from Apollo 11 lunar material by lettuce seedlings, Phyton, 32, 133

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Authors
Wamelink, G. W. W., Frissel, J. Y., Krijnen, W. H. J., Verwoert, M. R., & Goedhart, P. W.
Affiliations
Wageningen University & Research (NL)
Corresponding author
Wamelink, G. W. Wieger
ORCID
Venue
PLoS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2014-08-27
Volume
9
Issue
8
Pages
e103138
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0103138
PMC
PMC4146463
OpenAlex
W2033351297
Cited by
201
References
36
Citations by year
2026: 23 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 12 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2
FWCI
1.79
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Socio-Environmental Systems Modeling (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Plant Growth and Agriculture Techniques
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Space Exploration and Technology
Keywords
Martian regolith, lunar regolith, plant growth in space, in-situ resource utilization, plant germination, flowering, seed production, tomato, wheat, cress, Brassica rapa, green manure, low-fertility soils, water resources carrying capacity
MeSH terms
Extraterrestrial Environment, Humans, Mustard Plant, Soil, Triticum, Moon, Ecological Systems, Closed, Mars, Solanum lycopersicum, Crops, Agricultural, Space Simulation, Brassicaceae

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-03.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-03.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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