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Cited by 107Planetary Science and ExplorationSpace Exploration and TechnologyPlant Growth and Agriculture Techniques

The Potential for Lunar and Martian Regolith Simulants to Sustain Plant Growth: A Multidisciplinary Overview

Open access
Duri, Luigi Giuseppe, Caporale, Antonio Giandonato, Rouphael, Youssef, Vingiani, Simona, Palladino, Mario, De Pascale, Stefania, Adamo, Paola·2022·Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences
DOI 10.3389/fspas.2021.747821
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Abstract

Bioregenerative life support systems (BLSS) are conceived of and developed so as to provide food sources for crewed missions to the Moon or Mars. The in situ resource utilization (ISRU) approach aims to reduce terrestrial input into a BLSS by using native regoliths and recycled organic waste as primary resources. The combination of BLSS and ISRU may allow sustainable food production on Moon and Mars. This task poses several challenges, including the effects of partial gravity, the limited availability of oxygen and water, and the self-sustaining management of resources. Lunar and Martian regoliths are not available on Earth; therefore, space research studies are conducted on regolith simulants that replicate the physicochemical properties of extra-terrestrial regoliths (as assessed in situ by previous missions). This review provides an overview of the physicochemical properties and mineralogical composition of commercially available Lunar and Martian regolith simulants. Subsequently, it describes potential strategies and sustainable practices for creating regolith simulants akin to terrestrial soil, which is a highly dynamic environment where microbiota and humified organic matter interact with the mineral moiety. These strategies include the amendment of simulants with composted organic wastes, which can turn nutrient-poor and alkaline crushed rocks into efficient life-sustaining substrates equipped with enhanced physical, hydraulic, and chemical properties. In this regard, we provide a comprehensive analysis of recent scientific works focusing on the exploitation of regolith simulant-based substrates as plant growth media. The literature discussion helps identify the main critical aspects and future challenges related to sustainable space farming by the in situ use and enhancement of Lunar and Martian resources.

Verified 2026-11-03 · 1 reference not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review assesses Lunar and Martian regolith simulants as substrates for plant growth in bioregenerative life support and in situ resource utilization scenarios. It concludes that pure simulants can supply some nutrients but generally lack organic matter and key nutrients such as N, P, and S, and often have unfavorable alkaline, physical, and hydrological properties that require amendment or other treatment.

Key findings

  • Across 30 simulants (11 Lunar Mare, 6 Lunar Highlands, 4 Lunar Dust, 9 Martian), no universal simulant exists; mineralogies are heterogeneous, simulants often lack minor/rare phases, and none contain moisture or biological components.
  • Bulk chemistry shows SiO₂ at ∼45% in Lunar simulants and ∼41% in Martian simulants; Lunar simulants have higher Al₂O₃ and CaO, while Martian simulants have higher Fe and MgO. Simulants contain K, P, S, and Mn but lack N; pH is above 6 and alkaline in some cases, and the only EC data for Martian simulants are 0.2–0.3 dS m⁻¹. Martian surface perchlorates occur at 0.5–1%, but were absent from all 30 simulants.
  • Plant experiments show limitations: Wamelink et al. (2014) grew 14 species on JSC-1A Martian and JSC1-1A Lunar simulants without fertilizers; neither was an adequate nutrient source, Martian simulant outperformed Lunar, tomato and wheat performed well, three species flowered, and only two produced seeds. Wamelink et al. (2019) grew 10 crops with organic residues and nutrient solution, harvested edible parts of 9/10, found biomass highest in Earth control and Martian simulant but significantly lower in Lunar simulant, and only radish, rye, and cress produced seeds.
  • Organic amendment improves simulants: compost addition to MMS-1 lowered bulk density from 1.39 g cm⁻³ (pure simulant) to 0.60 g cm⁻³ (pure compost); a 70:30 simulant:compost mixture was best for lettuce hydraulic properties, while red Salanova lettuce in 30:70 showed best crop performance and quality, with 70:30 showing slight decline but greater resource-use sustainability. Gilrain et al. (1999) found compost:simulant ratios 1:0, 3:1, and 1:1 yielded more than 1:3 and 0:1, but overall growth was still lower. Ramírez et al. (2019) tested 65 potato genotypes in Mars-like soil with EC 19.3–52.6 dS m⁻¹; only 40% survived and yielded 0.3–5.2 g tuber plant⁻¹. Eichler et al. (2021) found perchlorate-enriched simulants could not sustain plant growth even with nutrients; JSC-Mars-1A and MMS supported growth with nutrients, but MGS-1 did not due to high alkalinity.

Methods

  • Narrative review consulting 74 scientific papers and 10 technical reports on Lunar and Martian regolith simulants published between 1970 and 2021.
  • Selected 30 simulants from the Planetary Simulant Database whose petrographic/mineralogical and chemical characteristics were described in 27 scientific papers; categorized as 11 Lunar Mare, 6 Lunar Highlands, 4 Lunar Dust, and 9 Martian simulants.
  • Synthesized physicochemical and mineralogical properties, bulk chemistry, hydrological properties, and prior plant-growth experiments; no new primary experimental data were generated.

Limitations

  • Stated: no standardized method exists for evaluating regolith efficacy, and many published studies claiming to assess regolith for plant growth used microbiome-contaminated regolith, which is effectively soil. No universal simulant exists; simulants often lack minor/rare phases and contain no moisture or biological components. pH and EC are not provided in the Planetary Simulant Database. No samples have been returned from Mars, and only minimal Lunar material is available on Earth. Commercial simulant documentation can be inadequate, as shown by discrepancies between measured and producer-provided bulk chemistry for MMS-1.
  • Stated future challenges: lack of adequate knowledge about the extra-terrestrial environment and best agronomic practices; water management and recycling under microgravity; effects of space environment on plant physiology; and perchlorate remediation for Martian regolith.
  • Evident from the text and Table 2: plant-growth experiments vary widely in species, propagation material, sterilization, nutrient supply, crop cycle, and simulant type, limiting direct comparability; the review is narrative and does not perform a quantitative meta-analysis.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fspas.2021.747821

Cites

94 of 95 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

30 of 100 cited sources checked · 16 supported · 2 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    In Wamelink et al. (2019), only three species (radish, rye, and cress) produced seeds.

    “Only three species (radish, rye, and cress) produced seeds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wamelink et al., 2019 source

      Section 2.5 says seeds were harvested from radish, rye, and cress for the germination experiment, but that does not mean they were the only species to produce seeds. The Discussion also says tomato and pea formed fruit and viable seeds, contrary to the claim’s “only three.” (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingcitation

    Jones and Or (1999) reported a decrease in unsaturated hydraulic conductivities in microgravity.

    “The authors also reported a decrease in unsaturated hydraulic conductivities, which can be explained by the modified hydrodynamics in microgravity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jones and Or (1999) source
  • Findingcitation

    Jones and Or (1999) showed that the retention curve has narrower pore-size distributions in microgravity.

    “By simulating a wetting and drying cycle using conventional unsaturated flow models adapted to microgravity, Jones and Or (1999) showed that the retention curve has narrower pore-size distributions in microgravity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jones and Or (1999) source
  • Premisecitation

    The provision of terrestrial resources to permanent extra-terrestrial human settlements is not economically sustainable.

    “The provision of terrestrial resources to permanent extra-terrestrial human settlements is not economically sustainable (Verseux et al., 2016), not only because of the high cost and resource/energy requirements, but also due to the difficulty and time needed to plan and execute launches (Llorente et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Verseux et al., 2016 source

      The Introduction says that sending all needed resources from Earth to sustain long-term human bases on Mars does not seem financially sustainable. The cited paper addresses Mars, however, so it does not establish the same conclusion for permanent settlements at all extra-terrestrial locations. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Llorente et al., 2018 source

      Section 1 describes the enormous logistical costs of launching and resupplying resources from Earth, and the resources and energy needed to sustain extraterrestrial greenhouses. It does not say that the difficulty or time required to plan and execute launches is a reason, so that part of the explanation attributed to Llorente et al. is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Toxic perchlorate salts occur commonly on the Martian surface in concentrations of 0.5-1%.

    “Due to the phytochemistry of the cold and oxidizing environment, toxic perchlorate salts occur commonly on the Martian surface in concentrations of 0.5-1% (Oze et al., 2021); however, they were not present in any of the 30 simulants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Oze et al., 2021 source

      The Introduction reports perchlorate wherever landers and rovers have explored and describes it as detrimental to plant growth. It says concentrations vary by location and depth, reaching as high as 2 wt.%; Section 2.1 identifies 0.5 and 1 wt.% as concentrations added in experiments, not as a commonly observed Martian range. The Introduction discusses possible atmospheric chemical origins, but does not attribute perchlorate formation to phytochemistry. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28
  • May combine two claims. 57

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is some evidence of a biofilm in Lunar and Martian soils.

    “although there is some evidence of a biofilm (Thomas-Keprta et al., 2014;Eigenbrode et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Thomas-Keprta et al., 2014 source
    • cites Eigenbrode et al., 2018 source

      The main text (p. 9) says the detected organic matter has no clearly identified source: biological, geological, and meteoritic origins are all possible. It does not present the material as evidence of a biofilm, and it reports no findings about lunar soil. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Space farming based on local resource exploitation is a promising strategy for food production on extra-terrestrial habitats, as it can allow water recycling, organic waste composting, and oxygen production or CO2 consumption.

    “Space farming based on local resource exploitation (Maggi and Pallud, 2010;Ramírez et al., 2019) is a promising strategy for food production (Ming and Henninger, 1989) on extra-terrestrial habitats, as it can allow water recycling, organic waste composting, and oxygen production or CO 2 consumption (Verseux et al., 2016;Llorente et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Maggi and Pallud, 2010 source
    • cites Ramírez et al., 2019 source
    • cites Ming and Henninger, 1989

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Studies report that Martian and Lunar simulants have a pH above 6, and have alkaline properties in some cases, suggesting low rates of mineral weathering and cation release.

    “Studies report that the Martian and Lunar simulants have a pH above 6, and have alkaline properties in some cases (Gilrain et al., 1999;Zaets et al., 2011;Wamelink et al., 2014;Caporale et al., 2020;Eichler et al., 2021), suggesting low rates of mineral weathering and cation release.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gilrain et al., 1999 source
    • cites Zaets et al., 2011 source
    • cites Wamelink et al., 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most existing simulants were developed to address specific application fields, and their agricultural properties have rarely been evaluated.

    “Most existing simulants were developed to address specific application fields, and although their chemical interactions or properties related to mechanical abrasion have been assessed to mitigate potential risks (Rickman et al., 2013), their agricultural properties have rarely been evaluated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rickman et al., 2013 source

      The Abstract says simulants are tested to mitigate risks to lunar-surface equipment and compared by physical properties and bulk chemistry. It does not establish that most simulants were developed for specific applications or that chemical interactions and abrasion properties have been assessed. The statement about rarely evaluated agricultural properties follows the citation and is not clearly attributed to Rickman et al. (LLM, conf=0.72)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Wamelink et al. (2014), three species flowered, but only two produced seeds.

    “Three species flowered, but only two produced seeds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wamelink et al., 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Wamelink et al. (2019), biomass production was highest in the Earth control and the Martian soil simulant, but was significantly lower in the Lunar simulant.

    “The biomass production was highest in the Earth control and the Martian soil simulant, but was significantly lower in the Lunar simulant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wamelink et al., 2019 source

      Section 3.1 (Fruit setting and biomass) reports that total aboveground biomass was highest in the Earth control and lowest in the Moon simulant, with Moon dry biomass significantly below Earth (p=0.0318). It also states that Mars biomass was not significantly different from either Earth or Moon, so the claim is unsupported if it implies a significant Mars–Moon difference. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Ramírez et al. (2019), only 40% of the potato genotypes survived and yielded crops (0.3-5.2 g tuber plant−1).

    “Only 40% of the genotypes survived and yielded crops (0.3-5.2 g tuber plant -1 ).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ramírez et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Several simulant properties-such as an alkaline pH, a high availability of sodium, the predominance of macro- vs. micropores, and a scant water holding capacity-can influence plant growth, health, and vigor in extra-terrestrial farming.

    “For extra-terrestrial farming, it is wellestablished that several simulant properties-such as an alkaline pH, a high availability of sodium, the predominance of macro-vs.micropores, and a scant water holding capacity-can influence plant growth, health, and vigor (Wamelink et al., 2014;Caporale et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Wamelink et al., 2014 source

      The Discussion (page not provided) says that higher water-holding capacity may explain better growth in Mars simulant and that high pH may explain poor growth in moon simulant. The Conclusions likewise identify pH and moisture retention as possible factors. Our copy does not establish high sodium availability or a predominance of macropores over micropores as influences on plant growth. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Caporale et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Martian simulant outperformed the Lunar simulant in biomass production in Wamelink et al. (2014), as it had trace levels of ammonium nitrate and carbon and no stressors that could cause a higher pH or low water holding capacity.

    “Nevertheless, the Martian simulant outperformed the Lunar simulant in biomass production, as it had trace levels of ammonium nitrate and carbon and no stressors that could cause a higher pH or low water holding capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wamelink et al., 2014 source

      The Results report higher biomass on the Martian simulant, and the Discussion says its greater water-holding capacity may explain its better performance. Table 2 reports ammonium, nitrate/nitrite, carbon and a lower pH for the Martian simulant than for the lunar one. The paper does not establish that those nutrients caused the biomass difference or that the Martian simulant had no stressors; its explanation is tentative. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Martian surface has been found to have a high salt concentration and high levels of perchlorates.

    “For instance, the Martian surface has been found to have a high salt concentration (Ramírez et al., 2019) and high levels of perchlorates (Eichler et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ramírez et al., 2019 source
    • cites Eichler et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Although MMS-1 was a source of nutrients for lettuce, it did not supply organic matter, N, and S, and provided very scant amounts of P.

    “Although it was a source of nutrients for lettuce, it did not supply organic matter, N, and S, and provided very scant amounts of P.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Caporale et al., 2020 source
    • cites Duri et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cabbage and Brussels sprouts exhibited higher absorption of Mn.

    “Notably, cabbage and Brussels sprouts exhibited higher absorption of Mn.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Walkinshaw and Johnson, 1971 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Organic amendment lowered the pH of the alkaline simulant, enhanced its cation exchange capacity, organic C and N levels, and the availability of macro- and micronutrients.

    “It also lowered the pH of the alkaline simulant, enhanced its cation exchange capacity, organic C and N levels, and the availability of macro-and micronutrients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Caporale et al., 2020 source
    • cites Duri et al., 2020 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) reports greater availability of several nutrients in compost-rich substrates and mentions the cation exchange capacity of compost. It does not report that amendment lowered the simulant’s pH or increased the substrate’s cation exchange capacity, organic C, or N levels; nor does it establish increased availability of micronutrients as a group. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plants produce O2 and fix CO2, serve as food for space crews, have a role in water recycling, and are actively involved in soil structure formation.

    “Plants produce O 2 and fix CO 2 , serve as food for space crews, have a role in water recycling (Maggi and Pallud, 2010;Llorente et al., 2018), and are actively involved in soil structure formation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Maggi and Pallud, 2010 source
    • cites Llorente et al., 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The red Salanova lettuce grown in the 30:70 simulant:compost mixture showed the best crop performance, photosynthetic activity, intrinsic water use efficiency, and quality traits (mineral, carotenoid, and phenolic contents).

    “The red Salanova ® lettuce grown in the 30:70 mixture showed the best crop performance, photosynthetic activity, intrinsic water use efficiency, and quality traits (mineral, carotenoid, and phenolic contents).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Caporale et al., 2020 source
    • cites Duri et al., 2020 source

      Results §2.1 reports that red Salanova in the 30:70 simulant:compost mixture had the highest fresh yield, net CO₂ assimilation and intrinsic water-use efficiency. But the claim that this mixture also had the best mineral, carotenoid and phenolic contents overstates the findings: Results §2.3 places the highest lutein content in the 70:30 mixture, while Results §§2.2 and 2.4 show that mineral and phenolic contents varied by nutrient or compound, with some highest in 100% compost. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    SiO2 is the principal constituent in all simulants; levels are consistently about 45% in Lunar simulants and about 41% in Martian ones.

    “SiO 2 is the principal constituent in all the simulants.SiO 2 levels are consistently ∼45% in the Lunar simulants, and ∼41% in the Martian ones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Lunar Highland simulants contain higher levels of anorthite plagioclases than Lunar Mare simulants (59 vs. 34%, respectively).

    “However, Lunar Highland simulants contain higher levels of anorthite plagioclases than Lunar Mare simulants (59 vs. 34%, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingreasoning

    Simulants lack key nutrients for plants such as N, which is frequently absent in minerals and occurs in biomolecules.

    “Simulants lack key nutrients for plants such as N, which is frequently absent in minerals and occurs in biomolecules.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Simulants contain non-negligible amounts of sodium (Lunar: 2.8% of Na2O; Martian: 2.4% from Na-plagioclases) and potentially toxic elements (e.g., Cr as Cr2O3), which may induce salt or other abiotic stresses in rhizosphere-competent microorganisms and plants.

    “Simulants also contain non-negligible amounts of sodium (Lunar: 2.8% of Na 2 O; Martian: 2.4% from Na-plagioclases) and potentially toxic elements (e.g., Cr as Cr 2 O 3 ), which may induce salt or other abiotic stresses in rhizosphere-competent microorganisms and plants (Caporale et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caporale et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Chamindu Deepagoda et al. (2014) concluded that the Lunar simulant was the worst in terms of water retention capacity, likely because of its large pore space (0.52 cm3 cm-3) and particle size (0.25-1.0 mm).

    “Their analysis concluded that the Lunar simulant was the worst in terms of water retention capacity, likely because of its large pore space (0.52 cm 3 cm -3 ) and particle size (0.25-1.0 mm).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chamindu Deepagoda et al. (2014) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    On average, compared to Lunar Highland simulants, Lunar Mare simulants are more enriched with mafic minerals (7 vs. 35%, respectively) and oxides (0.2 vs. 2.9%, respectively).

    “On average, compared to Lunar Highland simulants, Lunar Mare simulants are more enriched with mafic minerals (7 vs. 35%, respectively) and oxides (0.2 vs. 2.9%, respectively).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Lunar and Martian simulants contain significant levels of other nutrients essential for plant growth: K (average, 0.9%; 0.7% of K2O), P (0.3%; 0.3% of P2O5), S (0.1%; 4.4% of SO3), and Mn (0.1%; 0.1% of MnO).

    “Lunar and Martian simulants also contain significant levels of other nutrients essential for plant growth.These include potassium (average, 0.9%; 0.7% of K 2 O), phosphorus (0.3%; 0.3% of P 2 O 5 ), sulfur (0.1%; 4.4% of SO 3 ), and manganese (0.1%; 0.1% of MnO), which are derived from K-feldspars, phosphates, sulfates, and Mn oxides, respectively (Figure 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The Lunar Dust simulant is enriched by glass and opaque than the Lunar Mare and Lunar Highland simulants (53 vs. 25% and 33%, respectively), and exhibits lower levels of nesosilicates, inosilicates, and tectosilicates.

    “In accordance with the mineralogy of the Lunar dust regolith, the Lunar Dust simulant is enriched by glass and opaque than the Lunar Mare and Lunar Highland simulants (53 vs. 25% and 33%, respectively), and exhibits lower levels of nesosilicates, inosilicates, and tectosilicates (Figure 1; Supplementary Table S2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The only data regarding EC in Martian simulants indicate low values of 0.2-0.3 dS m-1, suggesting no adverse effect of salinity on plant growth.

    “The only data regarding EC in Martian simulants indicate low values of 0.2-0.3dS m -1 (Gilrain et al., 1999;Caporale et al., 2020), suggesting no adverse effect of salinity on plant growth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gilrain et al., 1999 source
    • cites Caporale et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Simulants contain inorganic carbon in the form of carbonates, and their levels are higher in Martian simulants than in Lunar ones.

    “The simulants also contain inorganic carbon in the form of carbonates, and their levels are higher in Martian simulants than in Lunar ones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Lunar simulants show higher Al2O3 and CaO levels than Martian simulants, whereas the opposite is true for Fe and MgO.

    “Likewise, Lunar simulants show higher Al 2 O 3 and CaO levels than Martian simulants, whereas the opposite is true for Fe (FeO and Fe 2 O 3 ) and MgO (Figure 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Under Martian gravity, microbial metabolism was enhanced, decomposition of DOC was faster, and emissions of NO, N2O, N2, and CO2 were much higher.

    “This enhanced the microbial metabolism, promoted faster decomposition of DOC, and much higher emission of NO, N 2 O, N 2 , and CO 2 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maggi and Pallud (2010) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Based on its hydraulic properties, the 70:30 mixture was the best substrate, as the percentage increase in large pores (diameter, 50-120 μm) was more significant in this mixture than in the 30:70 one.

    “Based on its hydraulic properties, the 70:30 mixture was best substrate, as the percentage increase in large pores (diameter, 50-120 μm) was more significant in this mixture than in the 30:70 one.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caporale et al. (2020) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Water held in macropores exceeding 120 μm in diameter was not directly beneficial for root water uptake in lettuce, and even caused root asphyxia.

    “Water held in macropores exceeding 120 μm in diameter was not directly beneficial for root water uptake in lettuce (the plant considered in the study), and even caused root asphyxia.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Caporale et al. (2020) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Martian regolith is classified as a fine-grained and cohesionless rocky soil that is mixed with dust due to planet storms.

    “Peters et al. (2008) reported that the Martian regolith is classified as a fine-grained and cohesionless rocky soil that is mixed with dust due to planet storms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peters et al. (2008) source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Regolith simulants, although not sterile, may play an essential role in improving understanding of environmental phenomena on the Moon and Mars and help solve potential problems related to the exploitation of Lunar and Martian regolith as plant growth substrates.

    “However, these regolith simulants, although not sterile, may play an essential role in improving our understanding of the environmental phenomena on the Moon and Mars.They may also help solve potential problems related to the exploitation of Lunar and Martian regolith as plant growth substrates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Potential future challenges include a lack of adequate knowledge about the extra-terrestrial environment and the development of best agronomic practices for the first space colony.

    “Potential future challenges include a lack of adequate knowledge about the extra-terrestrial environment and the development of best agronomic practices for the first space colony.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Due to the lack of a standardized method for evaluating regolith efficacy, many published studies claiming to have assessed regolith for plant growth have used microbiome-contaminated regolith, which is in effect a soil.

    “Due to the lack of a standardized method for evaluating regolith efficacy, many published studies claiming to have assessed regolith for plant growth have used microbiome-contaminated regolith, which is in effect a soil.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The main critical aspects of space agriculture are presumed to be related to nutrient availability, air and fluid movements in different gravitational conditions, and potentially toxic elements in the substrates.

    “The main critical aspects of space agriculture are presumed to be related to nutrient availability, air and fluid movements in different gravitational conditions, and potentially toxic elements in the substrates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Plant growth, morphology, and physiology on the Moon or other planets are expected to be greatly affected by the sterile and nutrient-poor nature of extra-terrestrial soil and the different gravitational and climatic conditions.

    “Naturally, plant growth, morphology, and physiology on the Moon or other planets are expected to be greatly affected by the sterile and nutrient-poor nature of extra-terrestrial soil and the different gravitational and climatic conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Potentially toxic elements such as Al and Cr usually precipitate and are poorly available in alkaline environments; therefore, their presence in non-negligible amounts should not hinder plant growth in simulants.

    “Potentially toxic elements such as Al and Cr usually precipitate and are poorly available in alkaline environments (Brautigan et al., 2012); therefore, their presence in non-negligible amounts should not hinder plant growth in simulants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brautigan et al., 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    There is only a minimal quantity of Lunar material on Earth that is closely guarded, and no samples have been brought back from Mars to date.

    “Nevertheless, there is only a minimal quantity of Lunar material on Earth that is closely guarded, and no samples have been brought back from Mars to date.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Reduced gravity causes changes in crucial hydrological variables and alters some fundamental characteristics of water flow and liquid distribution inside a porous medium.

    “Reduced gravity (e.g., in a spacecraft in orbit) causes changes in crucial hydrological variables and alters some fundamental characteristics of water flow and liquid distribution inside a porous medium.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Perchlorates can be taken up by plants and make their edible parts unsafe to eat.

    “Perchlorates can be taken up by plants and make their edible parts unsafe to eat.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The combination of BLSS and ISRU may allow sustainable food production on the Moon and Mars.

    “The combination of BLSS and ISRU may allow sustainable food production on Moon and Mars.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The addition of sustainable amounts of organic amendments or mineral fertilizers to Lunar and Martian simulants may enhance the bioavailability of essential nutrients and provide missing vital nutrients such as N and organic C.

    “Thus, the addition of sustainable amounts of organic amendments (e.g., compost or manure) or mineral fertilizers to Lunar and Martian simulants may enhance the bioavailability of essential nutrients and provide missing vital nutrients such as N and organic C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    In the absence of rigorous documentation by producers of simulants, there is a need for adequate characterization of commercial simulants prior to the designing and planning of any scientific experiments.

    “In the absence of rigorous documentation by producers of simulants, this shows the need for an adequate characterization of commercial simulants prior to the designing and planning of any scientific experiments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Martian regolith sometimes contains toxic perchlorates.

    “In addition, the Martian regolith sometimes contains toxic perchlorates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Selected pioneer plants can be grown initially to improve the root zone during cultivation and provide plant residues for humification at the end of their life cycle.

    “Furthermore, selected pioneer plants can be grown initially (Kozyrovska et al., 2006) to improve the root zone during cultivation and provide plant residues for humification at the end of their life cycle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kozyrovska et al., 2006 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Organic waste produced by BLSS crews can help recover compounds and allow their use as fertilizers or compost to support plant growth.

    “The organic waste produced by BLSS crews can help recover compounds and allow their use as fertilizers or compost to support plant growth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: In situ recycled organic matter can be produced in sufficient quantity and quality in BLSS to amend regolith.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    These simulants generally exhibit numerous features harmful for plant health, such as an alkaline pH, high availability of Na, low cohesion of mineral components, the predominance of macro- vs. micropores, and low water holding capacity.

    “Furthermore, these simulants generally exhibit numerous features harmful for plant health, such as an alkaline pH, high availability of Na, low cohesion of mineral components, the predominance of macro-vs.micropores, and low water holding capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Pure regolith simulants lack organic matter and key macronutrients such as N, P, and S.

    “However, they lack organic matter and key macronutrients such as N, P, and S.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lunar and Martian simulants have been primarily studied for applications other than agronomy, although they have potential use as a substrate for crop growth.

    “To date, Lunar and Martian simulants have been primarily studied for applications other than agronomy (de Vera et al., 2004;Gertsch et al., 2008;Kölbl et al., 2017;Karl et al., 2018), although they have potential use as a substrate for crop growth (Mortley et al., 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites de Vera et al., 2004 source
    • cites Gertsch et al., 2008
    • cites Mortley et al., 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In many studies, nutrient deficiency in simulants was overcome by fertigation with nutrient-rich solutions (e.g., Hoagland).

    “In many studies, nutrient deficiency in simulants was overcome by fertigation with nutrient-rich solutions (e.g., Hoagland).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Reduced gravity can influence gas and fluid movement, but does not necessarily lead to better rhizospheric conditions.

    “Although reduced gravity can influence gas and fluid movement, it does not necessarily lead to better rhizospheric conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    At the end of the growth cycle, Kozyrovska et al. (2006) demonstrated that first-generation plant residues could serve as a supply of green manure for humification and as a potential nutrient source.

    “At the end of the growth cycle, the authors demonstrated that the first-generation plant residues could serve as a supply of green manure for humification and as a potential nutrient source.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kozyrovska et al., 2006 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations were higher in treated plants, with chlorophyll a being the major pigment present.

    “Moreover, the chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations were higher in treated plants, with chlorophyll a being the major pigment present (Weete and Walkinshaw, 1972).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weete and Walkinshaw, 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With the addition of nutrients, both lettuce and Arabidopsis grew on JSC-Mars-1A and MMS, but did not grow on MGS-1.

    “However, with the addition of nutrients, both plant species grew on JSC-Mars-1A and MMS, but did not grow on MGS-1.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eichler et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Gilrain et al. (1999), Swiss chard plants grown in compost:simulant ratios of 1:0, 3:1, and 1:1 showed yields greater than those in the 1:3 and 0:1 ratios, and control plants irrigated with only water produced similar trends.

    “Plants grown in compost:simulant ratios of 1:0, 3:1, and 1:1 showed yields that were greater than those in the 1:3 and 0:1 ratios, and control plants irrigated with only water produced similar trends.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilrain et al., 1999 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lunar and Martian soils lack organic matter and biotic activity.

    “Lunar and Martian soils lack organic matter and biotic activity (Seiferlin et al., 2008), although there is some evidence of a biofilm (Thomas-Keprta et al., 2014;Eigenbrode et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Seiferlin et al., 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Walkinshaw et al. (1970) concluded that Lunar material could potentially support the growth of a wide range of plant species.

    “The authors noted the absence of disease agents in the plants tested under experimental conditions, and concluded that the Lunar material could potentially support the growth of a wide range of plant species.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Walkinshaw et al., 1970 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Plants need macro- and micronutrients for optimal growth, and these nutrients can be found in both inorganic and organic forms in soil on Earth.

    “As reported in Section 2.2, plants need macro and micronutrients for optimal growth, and these can be found in both inorganic and organic forms in soil on Earth (Hopkins and Huner, 2008;Fageria, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hopkins and Huner, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Fageria, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Aglan et al. (1998) and Mortley et al. (2000) concluded that both Lunar and Martian simulants showed potential for use as a substrate for crop production.

    “Therefore, the authors concluded that both simulants showed potential for use as a substrate for crop production.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Aglan et al., 1998 source
    • cites Mortley et al., 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Cultivation on Mars would require less water for irrigation and lower external nutrient supply than on Earth.

    “The authors concluded that cultivation on Mars would require less water for irrigation and lower external nutrient supply than on Earth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maggi and Pallud (2010) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The literature review showed that pure regolith simulants may be suitable media for plant growth (at least for limited periods) and function as a source of essential nutrients such as K, Ca, Mg, and Fe.

    “The literature review showed that pure regolith simulants may be suitable media for plant growth (at least for limited periods) and function as a source of essential nutrients such as K, Ca, Mg, and Fe.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Lunar and Martian regolith simulants are adequate analogues for actual Lunar and Martian regolith in plant growth studies.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The use of a stable organic amendment can supply organic carbon and improve the physical features of regolith.

    “The first solution involves the use of a stable organic amendment, not only as a supply of organic carbon, but also to improve the physical features of regolith (Gilrain et al., 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilrain et al., 1999 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Lunar and Martian soils, and therefore regolith simulant-based substrates, are potentially deficient in all macro- and micronutrients, which are derived exclusively (N), mostly (P, S), or partly (K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Cl, and Ni) from the degradation of organic components.

    “Thus, Lunar and Martian soils (and, therefore, regolith simulant-based substrates) are potentially deficient in all macro-and micronutrients, which are derived exclusively (N), mostly (P, S), or partly (K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Cl, and Ni) from the degradation of organic components.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Lunar and Martian regolith simulants are adequate analogues for actual Lunar and Martian regolith in plant growth studies.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Gilrain et al. (1999) concluded that compost mainly promoted plant growth by improving the physical features of the regolith that regulate water and/or nutrient availability.

    “The authors concluded that the compost mainly promoted plant growth by improving the physical features of the regolith that regulate water and/or nutrient availability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gilrain et al., 1999 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In tests by Aglan et al. (1998) and Mortley et al. (2000), the simulants mainly provided mechanical anchorage for the plant roots and did not cause any adverse or toxic effects in the plants.

    “In these tests, the simulants mainly provided mechanical anchorage for the plant roots, and did not cause any adverse or toxic effects in the plants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Aglan et al., 1998 source
    • cites Mortley et al., 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Carbon is absorbed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, and organic matter is the primary source of both N and P.

    “Carbon is absorbed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis (Hopkins and Huner, 2008), and organic matter is the primary source of both N and P.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hopkins and Huner, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Calcium perchlorate-enriched simulants were unable to sustain plant growth, even with nutrient supply.

    “Calcium perchlorate-enriched simulants were unable to sustain plant growth, even with nutrient supply.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eichler et al., 2021 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Fertigation with nutrient-rich solutions is not feasible and sustainable in space agriculture, as the nutritional resources must be carried from the Earth and cannot be produced in BLSS.

    “However, this agronomic technique is not feasible and sustainable in space agriculture, as the nutritional resources must be carried from the Earth and cannot be produced in BLSS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Although sustaining plant growth throughout the life cycle may be feasible for microgreens or salad crops, it is more challenging for other candidate species such as potato and soybean, which require more nutrients and resources to produce a sufficiently edible yield than do salad crops.

    “Although this may be feasible for microgreens or salad crops, it is more challenging for other candidate species such as potato (a source of carbohydrates) and soybean (a source of proteins), which require more nutrients and resources to produce a sufficiently edible yield than do salad crops.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In extra-terrestrial soil, water dynamics would regulate the extent of mineral weathering and the rate of organic matter decomposition, thus greatly affecting the biogeochemistry and bioavailability of nutrients and plant growth.

    “In extra-terrestrial soil, water dynamics would regulate the extent of mineral weathering and the rate of organic matter decomposition, thus greatly affecting the biogeochemistry and bioavailability of nutrients and plant growth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In sustainable scenarios of space farming, regolith-based substrates are required to sustain plant growth throughout the plant life cycle, including the complete seed maturation needed for reproduction.

    “In sustainable scenarios of space farming, regolith-based substrates are required to sustain plant growth throughout the plant life cycle, including the complete seed maturation needed for reproduction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Providing ecosystem services by using a regolith-based substrate might be the key to a fruitful and sustainable Lunar or Martian BLSS.

    “Providing ecosystem services by using a regolith-based substrate might be the key to a fruitful and sustainable Lunar or Martian BLSS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Further steps-such as water rinses, phytoremediation, volatilization, and chemical reduction by using perchlorate-reducing bacteria-are necessary to make Mars regolith a viable growing substrate.

    “Thus, further steps-such as water rinses, phytoremediation, volatilization, and chemical reduction by using perchlorate-reducing bacteria-are necessary to make Mars regolith a viable growing substrate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The presence of and interactions with biota (including pathogens, cyanobacteria, plant growth-promoting bacteria, beneficial symbiotic fungi, and worms) and biostimulants will add further complexity to life support systems with extraterrestrial soils.

    “The presence of-and interactions with-biota (including pathogens, cyanobacteria, plant growth-promoting bacteria, beneficial symbiotic fungi, and worms) and biostimulants will add further complexity to life support systems with extraterrestrial soils.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This can lower the substrate pH, increase mineral weathering rates, enhance nutrient release/availability, promote the aggregation of particles of different sizes (to form a more efficient porous system), and overall contribute to soil improvement.

    “This can lower the substrate pH, increase mineral weathering rates, enhance nutrient release/availability, promote the aggregation of particles of different sizes (to form a more efficient porous system), and overall contribute to soil improvement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The occurrence of perchlorates in the Mars regolith provides a significant challenge to its use as an agricultural substrate.

    “The occurrence of perchlorates in the Mars regolith provides a significant challenge to its use as an agricultural substrate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
75 of 75

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Unexplored areas of the Lunar and Martian surfaces may exhibit different mineralogy and chemical compositions.

    “Nevertheless, we need to assume that the unexplored areas of the Lunar and Martian surfaces may exhibit different mineralogy and chemical compositions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lunar and Martian regolith simulants are adequate analogues for actual Lunar and Martian regolith in plant growth studies.

    “Thus, Lunar and Martian soils (and, therefore, regolith simulant-based substrates) are potentially deficient in all macro-and micronutrients, which are derived exclusively (N), mostly (P, S), or partly (K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, B, Cl, and Ni) from the degradation of organic components.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from terrestrial simulant experiments can be extrapolated to off-world BLSS conditions.

    “Thus, it is essential to evaluate whether these soil simulants can be exploited to support future colonies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In situ recycled organic matter can be produced in sufficient quantity and quality in BLSS to amend regolith.

    “The organic waste produced by BLSS crews can help recover compounds and allow their use as fertilizers or compost to support plant growth.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The space environment (e.g., microgravity, radiation) will not fundamentally alter the physicochemical and biological processes assumed from Earth-based experiments.

    “The use of this amendment and soil tillage can also help mitigate the effects of microgravity on water leaching (Maggi and Pallud, 2010).”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Regolith lacks a natural biome and is deficient in essential macronutrients such as nitrogen and micronutrients including copper, zinc, and boron.

    “Unlike terrestrial soil, it lacks a natural biome and is deficient in essential macronutrients such as nitrogen, as well as key micronutrients including copper, zinc, and boron (Eichler et al., 2021;Duri et al., 2022).”

    From Spirulina supported plant growth in regolith simulants and elevated levels of CO2 (2025) · cites this paper as Duri et al., 2022

    The Abstract says regolith lacks a microbiome, and the Conclusion says simulants lack key macronutrients including nitrogen. Section 3 describes copper, zinc, and boron as potentially deficient, while §2.2 says they occur in trace concentrations in minerals; the paper does not establish the categorical micronutrient deficiency stated in the claim. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 96 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. Heiken, 1991, Lunar Sourcebook
  2. Lee, 2017, In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) Construction Technology for Moon and Mars
  3. Marquit, 2008, Testing Crew Responses to Varied Higher Plant Presentations in the MARS-500 Day Mission Simulation
  4. 2018, Pursuant to Section 432(b) of the NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017, 115-10
  5. 2014, Keys to Soil Taxonomy
  6. Stoeser, Design and Specifications for the highland Regolith Prototype Simulants NU-LHT-1m and-2M
  7. Zubrin, 2011, Case for mars

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Duri, L. G., Caporale, A. G., Rouphael, Y., Vingiani, S., Palladino, M., De Pascale, S., & Adamo, P.
Affiliations
University of Naples Federico II (IT)
Corresponding author
Caporale, Antonio Giandonato
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2022-01-04
Volume
8
ISSN
2296-987X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fspas.2021.747821
OpenAlex
W4205652835
Semantic Scholar
7d2d9749483328ab8038b4e63ca5d76cca6d868a
Cited by
107
References
96
Citations by year
2026: 29 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 8
FWCI
7.70
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Agenzia Spaziale Italiana
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Space Exploration and Technology
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Plant Growth and Agriculture Techniques
Keywords
lunar regolith simulant, Martian regolith simulant, bioregenerative life support, in-situ resource utilization, plant growth media, space agriculture, reduced gravity, mineralogical composition

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-03.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-03.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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