Subjective data, objective data and the role of bias in predictive modelling: Lessons from a dispositional learning analytics application
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For decades, self-report measures based on questionnaires have been widely used in educational research to study implicit and complex constructs such as motivation, emotion, cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies. However, the existence of potential biases in such self-report instruments might cast doubts on the validity of the measured constructs. The emergence of trace data from digital learning environments has sparked a controversial debate on how we measure learning. On the one hand, trace data might be perceived as "objective" measures that are independent of any biases. On the other hand, there is mixed evidence of how trace data are compatible with existing learning constructs, which have traditionally been measured with self-reports. This study investigates the strengths and weaknesses of different types of data when designing predictive models of academic performance based on computer-generated trace data and survey data. We investigate two types of bias in self-report surveys: response styles (i.e., a tendency to use the rating scale in a certain systematic way that is unrelated to the content of the items) and overconfidence (i.e., the differences in predicted performance based on surveys' responses and a prior knowledge test). We found that the response style bias accounts for a modest to a substantial amount of variation in the outcomes of the several self-report instruments, as well as in the course performance data. It is only the trace data, notably that of process type, that stand out in being independent of these response style patterns. The effect of overconfidence bias is limited. Given that empirical models in education typically aim to explain the outcomes of learning processes or the relationships between antecedents of these learning outcomes, our analyses suggest that the bias present in surveys adds predictive power in the explanation of performance data and other questionnaire data.
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LMS data should preferably be combined with self-reports or other measures because LMS data reflect only a uni-dimensional aspect of engagement in situ.
“Thus, LMS data are preferably combined with self-reports or other measures, as LMS data will only reflect a uni-dimensional aspect of the engagement in situ (e.g., Tempelaar et al., 2020).”
From Unpacking student engagement in higher education learning analytics: a systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as Tempelaar et al., 2020
The Instruments and procedure section (page unavailable) says the study combines LMS and e-tutorial traces with self-report questionnaires, supporting the use of both types of measure. It does not say LMS data capture only a unidimensional aspect of engagement or recommend combining them for that reason. The Discussion’s Limitations and future directions section instead cautions that, in this study, trace data could not easily be integrated with self-report data. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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- Authors
- Tempelaar, D., Rienties, B., & Nguyen, Q.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- The Open University (GB)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tempelaar, Dirk
- Venue
- PLOS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2020-06-12
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- e0233977
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7292385
- OpenAlex
- W3035222942
- Cited by
- 137
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 11.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Open Research Online (The Open University) (acceptedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- response style bias, overconfidence, self-report questionnaire, trace data, learning analytics, student performance prediction, process data, questionnaire validity, predictive modeling
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Academic Performance, Data Analysis, Attitude, Humans, Learning, Models, Theoretical, Motivation, Students, Cohort Studies, Bias, Databases, Factual, Self Report
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