The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 14 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Language, Race, and White Public Space
Open accessAbstract
White public space is constructed through intense monitoring of racialized populations and the invisibility of similar signs in Whites; Mock Spanish reproduces negative racializing stereotypes of Chicanos and Latinos while indexing whiteness as an unmarked norm.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While obvious”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“My research suggests that precisely the opposite is true for Whites.Whites permit themselves a considerable amount of disorder precisely at the language boundary that is a site of discipline for Puerto Ricans (and other members of historically Spanish-speaking populations in the United States)that is, the boundary between Spanish and English in public discourse.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“While Puerto Ricans agonize over whether or not their English is cultivated enough, the public written use of Spanish by Whites is often grossly nonstandard and ungrammatical.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hill 1993a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is clear that many Spanish speakers do hear the racist message of Mock Spanish.”
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Furthermore, African Americans diemselves apparently use Mock Spanish: Terry McMillan's 1996 novel, How Stella Got Her Groove Back, is rich in attestations in the speech of Stella, a beautiful and successful African American professional woman from California.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McMillan 1996
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“I have collected some evidence that members of historically Spanish-speaking populations do not share Whites' understanding of Mock Spanish.”
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“New tokens of White”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By indirect indexicality, it reproduces highly negative racializing stereotypes of Chicanos and Latinos.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By direct indexicality, Mock Spanish presents speakers as possessing desirable personal qualities.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“hi the light of the analysis that I have suggested above, the”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 13
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By far the richest examples of linguistic incorporations are Mock Spanish and AAE crossover.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For instance, tokens of”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the construction of whiteness is probably a project of global scope, and in fact Mock Spanish seems to be widespread in the English-speaking world.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, as far as I know no members of historically Spanish-speaking populations use Mock Spanish, at least not in anything like the routine way that Whites do.23”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary,”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The practices of Mock Spanish include, first, semantic pejoration of Spanish loans: the use of positive or neutral Spanish words in humorous or negative senses.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some Spanish speakers find some of the greeting cards in my sample funny.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“I have discovered only one case of apparent concern about Spanish-speaking opinion in reference to the use of Spanish in mass media.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle caseTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Indeed, in other work (Hill 1995) I have suggested that working-class speakers are less likely to use”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hill 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“One of the dimensions of this space is that disorder on the part of Whites (including not only Mock Spanish, but also cursing and a variety of locutionary sins of the”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hall et al. (1978) source
- Not matchedcites Cohen (1972)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
In the paper
“Students who heard the lecture under the”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rubin (1992) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, precisely because it is narrower in its range of opacity and transparency than is AAE”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
In the paper
“But Whites hear other public Spanish as impolite and even dangerous.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Urciuoli 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The kinds of games reported by Hewitt, however, remain reserved to childhood, unable to break through the dominant voices of racism; Hewitt found that the kind of interracial friendship that permitted teasing with racist epithets essentially vanished from the lives of his subjects by the time they reached the age of 16.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hewitt (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We cannot be sure that these phenomena are genuinely outside the linguistic order of racism until we understand dimensions of that order-within which age-graded cohorts may have a relatively enduring place.”
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Racism challenges the most advanced anthropological thinking, because racial formation processes (Omi and Winant 1994) are contested and contradictory, yet global in their scope.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Omi and Winant 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Mock Spanish is precisely”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
In the paper
“Or, perhaps we should say that carnivalesque inversions can be a”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Scott (1985)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“However, only slightly more than a decade ago Hewitt (1986) found that such crossings did not survive the adolescent years.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hewitt (1986)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, while the”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It seems likely that there are tokens that originate in Mock Spanish where the original indexicality is suppressable (the word peon, pronounced [piyan], which appeared in English by the seventeenth century, may be an example of this type), but in general tokens of this practice are relatively easy to spot and interpret.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While probably few White readers of this strip sense”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: 'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
The authors state this as an assumption.
'Whites' can be used as a shorthand category for the population that participates in White public space, despite heterogeneity.
“I use”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting dates for Warrior for Gringostroika
MinorThe note dates the same titled work to 1991, while the reference entry dates it to 1993.
“25. See, for instance, his Warrior for Gringostroika (1991).”
“10. Gomez-Pefia, Guillermo 1993 Warrior for Gringostroika. St. Paul, MN: Gray wolf Press.”
Citations
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Weapons of the weak: Everyday forms of peasant resistance
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Domination and the arts of resistance: hidden transcripts
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Zelnick, S., & Williams, R. (1978) · Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism · doi:10.2307/429853 · Cited by 4,729
Domination and the Arts of Resistance
Scott, J. C. (2017) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.12987/9780300153569 · Cited by 4,359
Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy
Appadurai, A. (1990) · Public Culture · doi:10.1215/08992363-2-2-1 · Cited by 4,259
Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J., & Roberts, B. (1978) · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-15881-2 · Cited by 3,981
Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy
Appadurai, A. (1990) · Theory, Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/026327690007002017 · Cited by 3,616
Folk Devils and Moral Panics: The Creation of Mods and Rockers (1972–2002)
Cohen, S. (2019) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780367809195-40 · Cited by 3,613
White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness
Frankenburg, R. (1993) · doi:10.4324/9780203973431 · Cited by 3,308
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 13
- Butler Judith, 1997, Excitable Speech
- Cmiel Kenneth, 1990, Democratic Eloquence
- Gibbs Nancy, 1996, An American Voice, Time, 149, 32
- Gomez‐Peña Guillermo, 1993, Warrior for Gringostroika
- Gubar Susan, 1997, Racechanges: White Skins, Black Face in American Culture
- Hewitt Roger, 1986, White Talk Black Talk, Inter‐Racial Friendship and Communication among Adolescents
- Hill Jane H., 1993, Is It Really “No Problemo”? In SALSA I: Proceedings of the First Annual Symposium about Language and Society—Austin. Robin Queen and Rusty Barrett, eds, Texas Linguistic Forum, 33, 1
- Kulick Don., 1993, Language Shift and Cultural Reproduction
- Labov William, 1972, Language in the Inner City
- Noriega Chon, 1997, Latin Looks, 85
- Penalosa Fernando, 1980, Chicano Sociolinguistics
- Rodriguez Clara E., 1997, Latin Looks, 73
- Urban Greg, 1991, A Discourse‐Centered Approach to Culture
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“The process by which a given referential system can reveal other aspects of a speaker’s social experience and positionality has been discussed as indirect indexicality in the linguistic anthropological literature (Hill, 1993, 1995, 1998, 2005; Ochs, 1990).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Hill, J. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hill, Jane H.
- ORCID
- Hill, Jane H.
- Venue
- American Anthropologist
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 1998-09
- Volume
- 100
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 680-689
- ISSN
- 0002-7294 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-1433
- OpenAlex
- W1985344939
- Cited by
- 972
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 83 · 2024: 51 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 35 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 115 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 48 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 31.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- American Anthropologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Linguistic and Sociocultural Studies
- Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Linguistic Variation and Morphology
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Language, Discourse, Communication Strategies
- Keywords
- African Americans, African American English, whiteness, indexicality, code-mixing, semiotics of language
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-11, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-11 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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