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Cited by 0Ancient Egypt and ArchaeologyArchaeology and ancient environmental studiesHistorical Astronomy and Related Studies

Sothic Dating of the Egyptian Old Kingdom

Open access
Puchkov, Alexander·2024·The World of the Orient
DOI 10.15407/orientw2024.01.042
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Abstract

The Sothic chronology of the Old Kingdom has not yet been securely established because of the small number of suitable dates from this period. An analysis of the Old Kingdom dates associated with seasonal events (wAgj feasts, expeditionary activity, the Nile cycles) reveals that seasonal activity was shifted about a month and a half earlier than would be expected given the actual seasons. This observation suggests that, in conventional chronological reconstructions, the age of the Old Kingdom is underestimated by about two centuries. A comparison of the dates of expeditions to Wadi Hammamat during the Old and Middle Kingdoms indicates that the discrepancy is due to incorrect assumptions about the length of the First Intermediate Period. This conclusion is consistent with the results of a large-scale radiocarbon dating project by G. Bonani et al., which revealed an extensive anomaly in the age of most Old Kingdom monuments, while for the Middle Kingdom the results coincided well with expectations. The significant increase in the length of the First Intermediate Period calls for a new look at this epoch, traditionally viewed as a period of struggle for power between two royal houses and the rapid succession of one Herakleopolitan to another.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper argues that conventional Old Kingdom chronology underestimates the period’s age by about two centuries, because seasonal dates (wAgj feasts, expeditions, Nile flood/low water) fall roughly a month and a half earlier than expected. A 200-year-higher chronology aligns these events, and pyramid azimuth data suggest an even larger correction of about 230 years.

Key findings

  • Old Kingdom seasonal activity is shifted about 1.5 months earlier than expected; using 45 days × 4.13 years/day gives 186 years higher age, so the low chronology (conventional −100 years) is excluded and the high chronology (conventional +200 years) comes into focus.
  • Wadi Hammamat OK expeditions cluster from late November to late January, while MK expeditions cluster from mid-January to late March; under the +200-year chronology the OK dates shift into mid-January–late March, synchronizing the two periods.
  • Nile dates also fit better under +200 years: Weni’s III Smw 17–30 moves from 1–14 Jan. to 18 Feb.–3 Mar., and Khufu’s Wadi al-Jarf I Axt 11–18 moves from 12–19 May to 29 Jun.–6 Jul.
  • Pyramid azimuth analysis indicates the OK is underestimated by more than two centuries (≈230 years compared with von Beckerath’s middle estimates), with Khufu’s pyramid foundation dated to 2810 ± 5 BCE; radiocarbon results show an OK anomaly that disappears in the 12th Dynasty.

Methods

  • The article analyzes known Old Kingdom civil dates tied to seasonal or astronomical events: heliacal risings of Sirius, movable wAgj feasts, quarrying expeditions to the Eastern Desert and Sinai, and Nile flood/low-water dates, converting Egyptian dates into Gregorian dates.
  • It compares Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom dated inscriptions and archives (Illahun, Abusir, Wadi Hammamat, Sinai, Wadi al-Jarf) and tests conventional versus +200-year chronology, drawing on the author’s prior pyramid-orientation/precession study.
  • It cross-checks the proposed correction against G. Bonani et al.’s large-scale radiocarbon dating project.

Limitations

  • The paper states that OK Sothic chronology is not securely established because of the small number of suitable dates; seasonal and lunar data cannot yield a more accurate value due to imprecision and cyclicality, so accurate dating requires archaeoastronomy.
  • The Sothic date from inv. 5821 is unusable until a photo becomes available, and its dating is controversial (6th Dynasty or Middle Kingdom); the Document IV wAgj date currently has no solution fitting the existing chronological framework.
  • The paper acknowledges that other unaccounted factors must be excluded and that the small number of OK expedition dates requires additional verification; it also depends on the author’s prior azimuth model and the 2810 ± 5 BCE anchor for Khufu.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.15407/orientw2024.01.042

Cites

43 of 43 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

2 of 37 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    The conclusion that the excess must be inserted between Neferkauhor and Mentuhotep IV is supported by the results of a large-scale radiocarbon dating study of Egyptian monuments by Bonani et al., which revealed an extensive anomaly in the age of the Old Kingdom samples.

    “This conclusion is supported by the results of a large-scale radiocarbon dating study of Egyptian monuments [Bonani et al. 2001, 1297-1300, Fig. 1], which revealed an extensive anomaly in the age of the OK samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bonani et al. 2001 source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingown data

    By its proportions, inv. 5821 better matches Aston's type 36 from the Middle Kingdom than type 34 or type 35.

    “According to Aston's typology, the authors mista-kenly prefer types 34 and 35, while it is clear that by its proportions -the ratio of Height : Rim Width : Foot Width (H : RW : FW ≈ 1.9 : 1.4 : 1; see Habicht's et al. reproduction), the jar better matches type 36 from the MK (H : RW : FW ≈ 2 : 1.5 : 1) than type 34 (H : RW : FW ≈ 2.4 : 1.3 : 1; this type has a more slender body) or type 35 (H : RW”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The movable wAgj dates from the Illahun archive fall on the end of August to the first half of September in Gregorian dates.

    “The movable wAgj dates (Greg.)fall on the end of August -the first half of September.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    An analysis of Old Kingdom dates associated with seasonal events reveals that seasonal activity was shifted about a month and a half earlier than would be expected given the actual seasons.

    “An analysis of the Old Kingdom dates associa-ted with seasonal events (wAgj feasts, expeditionary activity, the Nile cycles) reveals that seasonal activity was shifted about a month and a half earlier than would be expected given the actual seasons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingreasoning

    The calculation for the high Old Kingdom chronology shifts the dates of Old Kingdom expeditions into the same seasons as Middle Kingdom expeditions: mid-January to late March, with a single event in June, for the Eastern Desert, and spring for the Sinai expeditions.

    “The calculation for the high OK chronology (see Table 4, col. 5 and col.6) shifts the dates of the OK expeditions into the same seasons in which the MK expeditions took place: mid-January -late March, with a single event in June, for the Eastern Desert; spring for the Sinai expeditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19
  • May combine two claims. 42
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Djer tablet date was confidently identified as referring to Sekhat-Hor, the form of Hathor, and therefore does not contain a Sothic reference.

    “Back in 1958, the first of these two dates was confidently identified as referring to Sekhat-Hor, the form of Hathor, and therefore does not contain a Sothic refe-rence [Godron 1958, 146-149, Fig. 1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Godron 1958 source

      Section I identifies the Djer tablet as a mention of Sékhat-Ḥor, and on p. 146 Godron rejects reading a sign as the year sign, challenging the Sothic interpretation he recounts there. The passages available from our copy do not explicitly establish that Sékhat-Ḥor is a form of Hathor or state that the tablet contains no Sothic reference. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The authors did not provide a photo of inv. 5821; only a reproduction exists, so it is impossible to verify the reading, which differs from the reproduction in detail.

    “The authors did not provide a photo of the object; there is only a reproduction, so it is impossible to verify the reading, which for unknown reasons differs from the reproduction in detail (unreadable text in the second column; missing sign n in the first column).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A similar shift to an earlier season is observed for Sinai expeditions: the second half of spring for the Middle Kingdom and the second half of winter for the Old Kingdom.

    “A similar shift to an earlier season is observed in the case of the Sinai expeditions: the second half of spring for the MK and the second half of winter for the OK.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    A one-day advance accumulated every 4.13 years, so the observed shift of Old Kingdom expedition dates by about 45 days to an earlier season corresponds to a 186-year higher age of this period.

    “A one-day advance accumulated every 1 : (365.242-365) = 4.13 years, so the observed shift of the OK expedition dates by about a month and a half (45 days) to an earlier season would correspond to a 45 × 4.13 = 186 years higher age of this period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    For the generally accepted dates of Merenre's reign, III Smw 17-30 corresponds to the first half of January in Gregorian dates, while the decline of Nile waters began about a month later, from mid-February, and intensified towards the beginning of March.

    “This statement challenges modern chronologists, since for the generally accepted dates of Merenre's reign, III Smw 17-30, in which Weni could have landed at Saqqara, corresponds to the first half of January (Greg.)(Table 5), while the decline of the Nile waters began about a month later, from mid-February, and intensified towards the beginning of March [Meyer 1904, 179].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Meyer 1904

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Reconstructing the Document IV date as III [prt] 28 gives a maximum low estimate of 2245 BCE for Djedkare's reign, about 100 years below expectations, while III [Axt] 28 gives a minimum high estimate of 2605 BCE for Neferefre's reign, up to 200 years higher than expected.

    “Reconstructing the date as III [prt] 28 gives the maximum low estimate of 2245 BCE for Djedkare's reign 4 , some 100 years below expectations; and III [Axt] 28 gives the minimum high estimate of 2605 BCE for Neferefre's reign, up to 200 years higher than expected (see: [v. Beckerath 1997, 188]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites v. Beckerath 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the conventional Old Kingdom chronology, both the flood and low water dates occur too early to fit the corresponding seasons, whereas for the 200-year-higher chronology the match is good.

    “For the conventional OK chronology, they both occur too early to fit the corresponding seasons, whereas for the 200-year-higher chronology the match is good.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The duration of Eastern Desert activity periods in the Middle Kingdom and Old Kingdom is approximately the same, about 2.5 and 2 months respectively, but the Middle Kingdom period is in the second half of winter to first month of spring while the Old Kingdom period is in the first half of winter, starting 1.5 months earlier.

    “Analyzing the distribution of dates in Tables 3 and 4, one can notice that the duration of periods of activity in the Eastern Desert during the MK and OK is approximately the same and is about 2.5 and 2 months, respectively, but in the first case this is the second half of winter -first month of spring, and in the second case -the first half of winter, i.e., it starts 1.5 months earlier.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The calculation of Gregorian dates for the 200-year-higher chronology shifts III Smw 17-30 to the second half of February, which fits well with the statement about the problematic water level to reach the destination.

    “The calculation of Gregorian dates for the 200-year-higher chronology shifts III Smw 17-30 to the second half of February, which fits well with the statement about the problematic water level to reach the destination.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    The jar was purchased as part of a multiple lot that included another similar jar bearing a cartouche of Pepi I, king of the 6th Dynasty.

    “It would also not be superfluous to recall that, according to the history of origin, the jar was purchased as part of a multiple lot, which included another jar, described as similar to the one under discussion, and bearing a cartouche of Pepi I, the king of the 6 th Dynasty.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to Habicht et al., an ointment jar from the University of Zurich, inv. 5821, contains two columns of text.

    “According to Habicht's et al. report, an ointment jar from the archaeological collection of the University of Zurich, inv.5821, contains two columns of text:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Habicht et al.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The sum of facts leaves only two possibilities for inv. 5821: reuse of a 6th Dynasty jar with an added Middle Kingdom inscription, which is unlikely, or a Middle Kingdom jar whose text was read or interpreted incorrectly, which is likely.

    “The sum of the facts leaves only two possibilities: a) reuse of the 6 th Dynasty jar with the addition of an inscription during the MK (unlikely); b) the jar from the MK, but the text was read/interpreted incorrectly (likely) 1 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two instances of the wAgj feast are known from the Illahun archive: a civil one fixed on I Axt 17/18 and a lunar one falling on lunar day 17 of the second lunar month after the emergence of Sopdet.

    “Two instances of the wAgj feast are known from the Illahun archive: a civil one, fixed on I Axt 17/18; and a lunar one, which fell on the lunar day 17 of the second lunar month after the emergence of Sopdet [Puchkov 2023b, 102-103].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Puchkov 2023b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The civil calendar gave rise to two long cycles: the Sothic cycle for the heliacal rising of Sirius and a slightly longer cycle for seasonal events.

    “Such a calculation is possible due to the peculiarity of the functioning of the civil calendar, which gave rise to two long cycles, one of which refers to the heliacal rising of Sirius, the so-called”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    R. Krauss points out that grape ripening in Pharaonic Egypt took place in June-July and new wine production at the beginning of August to the beginning of September, in line with New Kingdom wine-jar sealing data.

    “R. Krauss points out that the ripening of grapes in Pharaonic Egypt took place in June-July, and the production of new wine at the beginning of August -the beginning of September [Krauss 1998, 57;2006a, 375], that is in line with data on sealing of wine jars during the New Kingdom [Hornung 1964, 77;2006, 206].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Krauss 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Hornung 1964

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    The establishment of the Sothic chronology is based on the calculation of absolute dates from Egyptian civil dates of annual and seasonal events.

    “The establishment of the Sothic chronology is based on the calculation of absolute dates from Egyptian civil dates of annual (emergence of Sopdet = heliacal rising of Si-rius) and seasonal events (harvesting, quarrying expeditions, floods and low waters).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The idea connecting the movable wAgj with the production of new wine goes back to A. Erman and is based on Pyramid Texts spells.

    “The idea about the connection of the movable wAgj with the production of new wine goes back to A. Erman and is based on some Pyramid Texts spells [Erman 1934, 23], for example PT 442, §820a: [sAH] nb jrpjj m wAg(j) ([Sah], Lord of wine[+making?(see: [Wb I, 115, 13])] during the wAgj [feast]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Erman 1934 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The date from Document III was reconstructed by P. Posener-Kriéger as I Axt [23/25/26/29] and by H. Vymazalová as I Axt [26].

    “The date from Document III was reconstructed by P. Posener-Kriéger as I Axt [23/25/ 26/29] [Posener-Kriéger 1985, 40], and by H. Vymazalová as I Axt [26] [Vymazalová 2008, 139-140].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Posener-Kriéger 1985

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Vymazalová 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The term prt Spdt for the heliacal rising of Sirius is attested in Middle Kingdom and later texts but does not appear during the Old Kingdom, where wpt rnpt was used.

    “Particular attention should be paid to the fact that the term prt Spdt for the heliacal rising of Sirius is attested in the texts of the MK and la-ter, but it does not appear during the OK, because the term wpt rnpt was used thereat to designate this event.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A large-scale radiocarbon dating project by G. Bonani et al. revealed an extensive anomaly in the age of most Old Kingdom monuments, while for the Middle Kingdom the results coincided well with expectations.

    “This conclusion is consistent with the results of a large-scale radiocarbon dating project by G. Bonani et al., which revealed an extensive anomaly in the age of most Old Kingdom monuments, while for the Middle Kingdom the results coincided well with expectations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites G. Bonani et al.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The stylistic features of inv. 5821 point either to the 6th Dynasty according to Günther and Wellauer's typology, if object Nr. 82 is the best fit, or to the Middle Kingdom according to Aston's typology, and the use of prt Spdt makes it doubtful that the inscription was carved before the Middle Kingdom.

    “Although the authors claim that the object originates from the 5 th Dynasty [Gautschy et al. 2017, 71], its stylistic features point either to the 6 th Dynasty according to Günther and Wellauer's typology, if object Nr. 82 is the best fit, or to the MK according to Aston's typology, and the use of the term prt Spdt makes it doubtful that the inscription was carved before the MK.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gautschy et al. 2017 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Manetho figures for the 9-10th Herakleopolitan Dynasties were significantly reduced by chronologists based on arguments of different persuasiveness.

    “According to Manetho, this period, during which a total of 23 (Eusebius) to 38 (Africanus) kings reigned, was much longer and amounted to 285 (Eusebius) / 594 (Africanus) years, but these figures were significantly reduced by chronologists based on arguments of different persuasiveness (for analysis, see: [Puchkov 2023a, 35-37]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Puchkov 2023a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The shift in seasonal activity can be explained by either climate change or incorrect estimates of the age of one of the periods.

    “The shift in seasonal activity can be explained by either (a) climate change, or (b) incorrect estimates of the age of one of the periods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Weni, a 6th Dynasty official, reported that he was able to deliver cargo from Hatnub to the king's pyramid at Saqqara within 17 days of III Smw, although there was no water on the Tzw sandbanks.

    “Weni, the 6 th Dynasty official, reported that he was able to deliver the cargo from Hatnub to the king's pyramid at Saqqara within 17 days of III Smw, although there was no water on the Tzw, sandbanks (see: [Wb V, 401]; see also: [Meyer 1908, 20, n. 1]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Meyer 1908

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    A number of local administrators of Upper Egypt dating from the end of Pepy II's reign to the end of the 8th Dynasty, as well as a large number of burials in the Qau and Badari cemeteries from the same period, may indicate a longer final part of the Old Kingdom.

    “A number of local administrators of Upper Egypt dating from the end of Pepy II's reign to the end of the 8 th Dyn. [Brovarski 2014, 22-33], as well as a large number of burials in the Qau and Badari cemeteries from the same period”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brovarski 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Brunton 1923

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    To exclude the possibility of an incorrect conclusion due to the small number of Old Kingdom expedition dates, additional verification is necessary.

    “To exclude the possibility of an incorrect conclusion due to the small number of the OK expedition dates, additional verification is necessary.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    The season name in the date from Document IV is lost: III [...] 28.

    “The season name in the date from Document IV is lost: III [...] 28.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The identical peculiarity of the dates analyzed in sections §2-4 to be about one and a half months earlier than expected given the actual seasons justifies the conclusion that, in conventional chronological reconstructions, the age of the Old Kingdom is underestimated by about two centuries.

    “The identical peculiarity of the dates analyzed in sections §2-4 to be about one and a half months earlier than would be expected given the actual seasons justifies the conclusion that, in the conventional chronological reconstructions, the age of the OK is underestimated by about two centuries.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The observed shift in seasonal activity is not caused by unaccounted factors other than incorrect chronology.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Based on a weak argument of the paucity of archaeological traces, the conventional chronology suggests a significantly shorter average Herakleopolitan reign of ≈ 125 : 18 = 7 years.

    “Based on a weak argument of the paucity of archaeological traces (as correctly pointed out by [Seidlmayer 2006, 165]), the conventional chronology suggests a significantly shorter average Herakleopolitan reign of ≈ 125 : 18 = 7 years (see: [v. Beckerath 1997, 144-145]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Seidlmayer 2006 source
    • cites v. Beckerath 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Conventional views hold that the Herakleopolitan kings reigned about 125 years, with about 100 years coexistence with the 11th Theban Dynasty, leaving only 25 years of sole rule.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    According to Manetho, the period of the 9-10th Herakleopolitan Dynasties, during which a total of 23 (Eusebius) to 38 (Africanus) kings reigned, was much longer and amounted to 285 (Eusebius) / 594 (Africanus) years.

    “According to Manetho, this period, during which a total of 23 (Eusebius) to 38 (Africanus) kings reigned, was much longer and amounted to 285 (Eusebius) / 594 (Africanus) years, but these figures were significantly reduced by chronologists based on arguments of different persuasiveness (for analysis, see: [Puchkov 2023a, 35-37]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Puchkov 2023a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to Papyrus A, Merer's team transported limestone blocks from Tura to Khufu's funerary complex in the first ten days of I Axt and took part in opening a seasonal canal leading to Khufu's artificial lake in the second ten days.

    “According to the text of Papyrus A, the only one discovered preser-ving information about the month of the events described, i.e., I Axt, Merer's team transported limestone blocks from Tura to Khufu's funerary complex in the first ten days (days 3 to 10 are preserved) of the month, and they took part in the opening of a seasonal canal leading to Khufu's artificial lake in the second ten days (days”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tallet 2017b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Tallet incorrectly calculates the correspondence of Egyptian months to Julian months because he adds the difference in days to the date of the heliacal rising of Sirius, whereas for earlier periods this value must be subtracted.

    “Tallet uses the estimate given by Hornung, Krauss and Warburton for the last years of Khu- fu's reign (the beginning of the 25 th century BCE), and incorrectly calculates the correspondence of Egyptian months to Julian months [Tallet 2017а, 8-10, Tableau 1]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tallet 2017а

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Summing the expedition-date observation with the two options for reconstructing the wAgj date from §2.3, the low Old Kingdom chronology of conventional minus 100 years can be confidently excluded and the high chronology of conventional plus 200 years comes into focus.

    “Summing this observation with two options for reconstruction of the wAgj date from section §2.3, the low OK chronology (conventional -100 years) can be confidently excluded from consideration and the high one (conventional + 200 years) comes into focus.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The observed shift in seasonal activity is not caused by unaccounted factors other than incorrect chronology.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The radiocarbon anomaly affects most of the collected materials, including the 8th Dynasty sample from the pyramid of Qakare Ibi, but it disappears in the 12th Dynasty samples from the pyramid of Senusret II.

    “The anomaly affects most of the collected materials, including the 8 th Dynasty sample from the pyramid of Qakare Ibi, but it disappears in the 12 th Dynasty samples from the pyramid of Senusret II [Puchkov 2023a, 39-40].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Puchkov 2023a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    This conclusion agrees with the results of the large-scale radiocarbon dating project by G. Bonani et al., which found a significant anomaly in the age of most Old Kingdom samples, while for the Middle Kingdom the results matched expectations well.

    “Цей висновок узгоджується з результатами масштабного проєкту радіовуглецевого датування Г. Бонані та ін., який виявив значну аномалію у віці більшості зразків Давнього царства, тоді як для Середнього царства результати добре збіглися з очікуваннями.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    This value is close to 143 : 7 = 20 years/reign for the contemporary 11th Dynasty Thebans (or 73 : 4 = 18 years/reign before the unification of Egypt).

    “This value is close to 143 : 7 = 20 years/reign for the contemporary to them 11 th Dynasty Thebans (or 73 : 4 = 18 years/reign before the unification of Egypt).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 11th Dynasty Thebans had 7 kings and 143 years, or 4 kings and 73 years before the unification of Egypt.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Seasonal or lunar data do not help to calculate a more accurate value: the former due to their imprecise nature and the latter due to their cyclical nature.

    “Seasonal or lunar data do not help to calculate a more accurate value: the former due to their imprecise nature; the latter due to their cyclical nature 14 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The option that the Document III date refers to the lunar wAgj should be excluded, because the dates of this feast must fall in the same lunar month, but there is at least a two-month gap between two wAgj dates from the Abusir archive.

    “First, the option that the examined date refers to the lunar wAgj should be immediately excluded, since, as shown in section §2.1, the dates of this feast must fall in the same lunar month, but there is at least a two-month gap (I Axt [26] and III […] 28) between two wAgj dates from the Abusir archive (for the second date see section §2.3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If this connection is not accidental, the Document III date may mark either the beginning of the Sirius-based lunar year of temple service or the heliacal rising itself.

    “If this connection is not accidental, then the date may mark (a) the beginning of the Sirius-based lunar year of temple service (the first day of the first lunar month after the heliacal rising) or (b) the heliacal rising itself.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This alignment brought Meskhetiu into a state of balance, which the Egyptians could identify with the help of two poles and a looped cord in the stretching of the cord ceremony.

    “This alignment brought Meskhetiu into a”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Since Predynastic times, Egyptians undertook quarrying expeditions into the Eastern Desert along Wadi Hammamat and to the Sinai Peninsula through the Gulf of Suez ports of Wadi al-Jarf and Ain Sokhna.

    “Since Predynastic times, the Egyptians had undertaken quarrying expeditions into the Eastern Desert, following the caravan route along the dry river bed, Wadi Hammamat; and to the Sinai Peninsula (Serabit el-Khadim, Wadi Maghareh) through the Gulf of Suez ports of Wadi al-Jarf and Ain Sokhna [Gardiner, Peet, Černý 1955, 3-11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gardiner, Peet, Černý 1955

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed correction extends the Herakleopolitan sole rule to about 200 years and brings the average length of their individual reigns close to that of the contemporary Thebans.

    “The proposed correction extends this period to about 200 years of Herakleopolitan's sole rule and brings the average length of their individual reigns close to that of the contemporary Thebans 18 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Conventional views hold that the Herakleopolitan kings reigned about 125 years, with about 100 years coexistence with the 11th Theban Dynasty, leaving only 25 years of sole rule.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Contemporary reports indicate that expeditionary activity was seasonal, so these data may be useful for Sothic dating of the Old Kingdom.

    “Contemporary reports (see: [Breasted 1906, 321-322, §733-736;Simpson 1959, 23]) indicate that this expeditionary activi-ty was seasonal, so these data may be useful for Sothic dating of the OK.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Breasted 1906

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Simpson 1959 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The second ten days in this case correspond to the beginning of July, which fits well with the expected time for opening a seasonal canal.

    “The second ten days in this case correspond to the beginning of July, which fits well with the expected time for opening a seasonal canal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Tallet uses Julian dates instead of Gregorian dates, while the former accumulate a difference of about 3 weeks with the actual seasons of the Old Kingdom.

    “He also uses Julian dates instead of Gregorian dates, while the former accumulate a difference of about 3 weeks with the actual seasons of the OK.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The nature of the Document III date is unclear, so it is set aside for further consideration.

    “At this stage it must be admitted that the nature of the date is unclear, so it will be set aside for further consideration in section §6.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lunar data can be useful primarily for refining dates in the 25-year range, if it is known for certain, since about 70% of lunar phases repeated on the same civil days due to the existence of a 25-year lunar cycle.

    “Lunar data can be useful primarily for refining dates in the 25-year range, if it is known for certain, since about 70 % of lunar phases repeated on the same civil days due to the existence of a 25-year lunar cycle (see: [Parker 1950, 15; Krauss 2006b, 404-406]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Parker 1950

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Krauss 2006b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If one of these options is the case and Vymazalová's reconstruction is correct, the document could not have been compiled later than 2669 BCE or 2665 BCE, and the interval between Khufu and Neferefre is overestimated by v. Beckerath by at least several years.

    “If one of these options is the case and Vymazalová's reconstruction is correct, then the document could not have been compiled later than (a) 2669 BCE (heliacal rising at I Axt 25) or (b) 2665 BCE (rising at I Axt 26) and the interval between Khufu and Neferefre is overestimated by v. Beckerath by at least several years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Parker considers late May - early June to be the average beginning of the annual flood at Aswan, suggesting a 10-day delay between Aswan and Memphis.

    “Parker considers late May -early June to be the average beginning of the annual flood at Aswan [Parker 1950, 32, §156], suggesting 10-day delay between Aswan and Memphis [Parker 1950, 74, n.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parker 1950

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    In the second ten days of May, the Nile in the Memphis area should have been at its lowest level, so there can have been no question of putting a seasonal canal into operation.

    “In the second ten days of May, the Nile in the Memphis area should have been at its lowest level 11 , so there can have been no question of putting a seasonal canal into operation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    There is currently no solution to fit the Document IV date into the existing chronological framework, but the date may indicate the problematic nature of Old Kingdom conventional dates based on assumptions about the length of the First Intermediate Period.

    “There is currently no solution to fit this date into the existing chronological framework, but at this stage it is better to refrain from invalidating it and finish the section by concluding that the date from Document IV may indicate the problematic of the OK conventional dates based on assumptions about the length of the FIP.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The smaller than expected gradient of the second trend line in the pyramid azimuth data for v. Beckerath's chronology indicates that the overestimation is about 15-20 years and therefore Document III was compiled during the reign of Nyuserre Ini.

    “The smaller than expected gradient of the second trend line in the pyramid azimuth data for v. Beckerath's chronolo-gy [Puchkov 2023a, 64, Fig. SM5] indicates that the overestimation is about 15-20 years and therefore Document III was compiled during the reign of Nyuserre Ini.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Puchkov 2023a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The known relative chronology of the Old Kingdom is reliable.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The Middle Kingdom Wadi Hammamat seasonality roughly corresponds to the time when the Nile water was decreasing, but the hot season had not yet arrived.

    “which roughly corresponds to the time when the Nile water was decreasing, but the hot season has not yet arrived.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
53 of 53

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Middle Kingdom has a firm Sothic reference.

    “given that the MK has a firm Sothic reference”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The observed shift in seasonal activity is not caused by unaccounted factors other than incorrect chronology.

    “To exclude the possibility of an incorrect conclusion due to the small number of the OK expedition dates, additional verification is necessary.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The known relative chronology of the Old Kingdom is reliable.

    “Dates for other reigns can be calculated based on the known relative chronology of the period.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Qakare Ibi and Neferkauhor were correctly placed at the end of the 8th Dynasty.

    “If Qakare Ibi and Neferkauhor were correctly placed at the end of the 8 th Dynasty”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Conventional views hold that the Herakleopolitan kings reigned about 125 years, with about 100 years coexistence with the 11th Theban Dynasty, leaving only 25 years of sole rule.

    “They reigned for about 125 years according to conventional views, that is, taking into account the coexistence with the 11 th Theban Dynasty for about 100 years, they got only 25 years of sole rule.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 11th Dynasty Thebans had 7 kings and 143 years, or 4 kings and 73 years before the unification of Egypt.

    “143 : 7 = 20 years/reign for the contemporary to them 11 th Dynasty Thebans (or 73 : 4 = 18 years/reign before the unification of Egypt).”
6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Sinai expedition counted as a Wadi Hammamat expedition

    Minor

    Table 4 places the expedition dated 23 Jan. in the high-chronology Hammamat column, but Table 3 identifies that date as Pepi I's Sinai expedition. Its shifted date, 12 Mar., belongs in the Sinai column.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 21

  1. Beckerath J. von (1984), Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, (Münchner Ägyptologische Studien, Vol. 20), Deutscher Kunstverlag, München.
  2. Belmonte J. (2003), "Some open questions on the Egyptian calendar: an astronomer's view", Papers on Ancient Egypt (TdE), Vol. 2, pp. 7-56.
  3. Breasted J. (1906), Ancient records of Egypt, Vol. I, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
  4. Farout D. (1994), "La carrière du [ouhemou] Ameny et l'organisation des expéditions au Ouadi Hammamat au Moyen Empire", Bulletin de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale, Vol. 94, pp. 143-172.
  5. Felber H. (1997), "Die Daten in den demotischen Ackerpachtvertägen der Ptolemäerzeit und das landwirtschaftliche Jahr", Archiv für Papyrusforschung, Beiheft 3, pp. 281-289.
  6. Gardiner A., Peet E. and Černy J. (ed.) (1955), The Inscriptions of Sinai, Part II. Translations and Commentary, Oxford University Press, London.
  7. Golenishchev V. S. (1887), "Epigraficheskie rezul'taty poezdki v Uadi Hammamat", Zapiski Vostochnogo otdeleniya (Imperatorskogo) Russkogo arheologicheskogo obshchestva, Vol. 2, pp. 63-79. (In Russian).
  8. Krauss R. (1993), "März, April und Mai als durchschnittliche Monate der Getreideernte im antiken und neuzeitlichen Ägypten", Discussions in Egyptology, Vol. 27, pp. 27-34.
  9. Krauss R. (2021a), "The assumed moveable wAgj feast in the Raneferef archive", Göttinger Miszellen, Hft. 263, pp. 91-96.
  10. Lieblein J. (1907-1908), "Eine chronologische Bestimmung", Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, Bd. 44, pp. 101-102.
  11. Luft U. (1994), "The Date of the WAgy Feast: Considerations on the Chronology of the Old Kingdom", in Spalinger A. (ed.), Revolutions in Time: Studies in Ancient Egyptian Calendars, (Varia Aegyptiaca Supplements 6), Van Siclen Books, San Antonio, pp. 39-44.
  12. Mostafa M. (1987), "Kom El-Koffar. Teil II: Datierung und historische Interpretation des Textes B", Annales du Service des Antiquités de l'Égypte, Vol. 71, pp. 169-184.
  13. Obsomer C. (2020), "Les inscriptions hiéroglyphiques de l'époque perse au Ouadi Hammamat (Égypte)", Les Études Classiques, Vol. 88, No. 1-4, pp. 227-262.
  14. Parker R. (1950), The Calendars of Ancient Egypt, (Studies on Ancient Oriental Civilization, No. 26), The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
  15. Posener-Kriéger P. (1985), "Remarques prélimhaires sur les nouveaux papyrus d'Abousir", in Ägypten: Dauer und Wandel. Symposium anlässlich des 75jährigen Bestehens des Deutschen Archdologischen Instituts, Kairo am 10. und 11. Oktober 1982, Sonderschrift 18, P. von Zabern, Mainz am Rhein, pp. 35-43.
  16. Posener-Kriéger P. (1986), "Wag-Fest", in Helck W. and Westendorf W. (eds), Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Vol. 6, O. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, pp. 1135-1139.
  17. Spalinger A. (1994), "Dated Texts of the Old Kingdom", Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Vol. 21, pp. 275-319.
  18. Tallet P. (2017a), Les papyrus de la mer Rouge I. Le "journal de Merer" (Papyrus Jarf A et B), Le Caire, Institut français d'Archéologie Orientale, coll. "Mémoires publiés par les membres de l'Institut français d'archéologie orientale", n° 136, IX-164 p.
  19. Verner M. (2008), "The system of dating in the Old Kingdom", in Vymazalová H. and Bárta M. (eds), Chronology and Archaeology in Ancient Egypt (The Third Millennium B.C.), Czech Institute of Egyptology, Prague, pp. 124-143.
  20. Vymazalová H. (2008), "Some remarks on the wAg-festival in the papyrus archive of Raneferef", in Vymazalová H. and Bárta M. (eds), Chronology and Archaeology in Ancient Egypt (The Third Millennium B.C.), Czech Institute of Egyptology, Prague, pp. 137-143.
  21. Vymazalová H. (2016), "Feasts in Written Evidence from the 5th Dynasty Royal Necropolis of Abusir", in Landgráfová R. and Mynářová J. (eds), Rich and Great. Studies in Honour of Anthony J. Spalinger on the Occasion of his 70th Feast of Thoth, Charles University, Prague, pp. 331-340.

Related

Authors
Puchkov, A.
Affiliations
Oles Honchar Dnipro National University (UA)
Corresponding author
Puchkov, Alexander
Venue
The World of the Orient
Publisher
National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (Co. LTD Ukrinformnauka) (Publications)
Published
2024-03-30
Volume
2024
Issue
1
ISSN
  • 1608-0599 (ISSN-L)
  • 1682-5268
DOI
10.15407/orientw2024.01.042
OpenAlex
W4393982211
Semantic Scholar
3bf3a90b1ba07f196c3ca6f19a25a91cdd09bc0f
Cited by
0
References
39
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
The World of the Orient (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology › Ancient Egypt and Archaeology
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Archaeology and ancient environmental studies
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Historical Astronomy and Related Studies
Keywords
Egyptian chronology, seasonal events, First Intermediate Period, Middle Kingdom

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-26.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-26.

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