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Cited by 1Spanish Culture and IdentitySpanish History and PoliticsForensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 77 of the 77 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 58 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge: An Analysis of Francoist Repression in Southwest Spain

Muñoz-Encinar, Laura·2021·Journal of Contemporary Archaeology
DOI 10.1558/jca.41484
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Abstract

Recent research into the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the first years of the Francoist dictatorship (1939-1975) estimates that approximately 200,000 people were executed in Spain during this period, either extrajudicially or after popular tribunals or court martials. The bodies of the victims were for the most part buried in mass graves, thrown into riverbeds or disposed of in mines or caves. In this paper, I discuss how forensic examination of the mass graves can yield new evidence about political repression and shed new light on documentary and oral sources. I employ a multidisciplinary approach that combines archaeology and forensic anthropology to reconstruct the facts around the killings and produce new historical knowledge about the traumatic past of contemporary Spanish society.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper argues that archaeological and forensic anthropological analysis of mass graves from Francoist repression in southwestern Spain can generate historical knowledge that documentary and oral sources alone cannot, challenging official histories and clarifying repressive practices. It uses exhumations directed by the author to reconstruct killings, perimortem and post-mortem treatment, and patterns of violence.

Key findings

  • Recent estimates cited in the paper indicate approximately 200,000 people were executed in Spain during the Civil War and early Francoist dictatorship, either extrajudicially or after popular tribunals or court martials; historical investigations place Republican deaths from Francoist repression between 130,000 and 150,000, and victims of Republican violence between 49,000 and 55,000.
  • In Mérida, official Francoist documentation recorded only 63 dead after the occupation, while Franco’s contemporaneous statement referred to 250 enemies killed; oral sources attest more than 100 executed immediately after occupation, making the first-days total higher than 300, already exceeding the official 1936–1942 total of 230. Based on deposit capacity, the graves could have held more than 300 corpses.
  • In Puebla de Alcocer, civil registers indicated 12 executions on 21 May and 27 on 25 May 1939, but exhumation revealed a minimum of 42 victims buried in two trenches; the men had been bound in pairs, divided into five groups of between six and ten men, and thrown into five different areas, with some bodies left intentionally uncovered and partially consumed by carnivores.
  • At the Castuera concentration camp, in use from March 1939 to 1940, the population was around 4,000 prisoners during less crowded periods and between 8,000 and 9,000 at its peak, with an estimated 15,000 to 20,000 prisoners passing through; Mass Grave 3 at Castuera documents Civil Guard responsibility for executions, and personal belongings in mass graves show resistance and identity preservation.

Methods

  • The study combines archaeology and forensic anthropology, following the medico-legal forensic paradigm for human rights investigations and approaches from contemporary conflict archaeology; the author directed exhumations of mass graves resulting from extrajudicial violence in southwestern Spain.
  • Forensic anthropology was used to compile biological profiles of victims and infer perimortem violence and post-mortem treatment, including taphonomic analysis of bone alterations; objects associated with victims and perpetrators were also analyzed.
  • Findings were related to documentary and oral sources, and cases were integrated through diachronic analysis to establish behaviours, strategies, and patterns of repression over time.

Limitations

  • Stated in the paper: there is a lack of documentary evidence, official archives of terror were tampered with or destroyed, oral history has problems and limitations, torture and psychological violence are extraordinarily complex or impossible to demonstrate materially, and no documentation on the internal functioning of the Castuera camp has been located.
  • Stated in the paper: some perpetrator documentation may include incorrect or contradictory information, and treating exhumations as investigations of single events rather than part of a complex system of elimination can obscure the magnitude and complexity of repression.
  • Evident from the text: the analysis draws on exhumations directed by the author in southwestern Spain, so the findings are geographically and case-specific; the paper does not present a systematic statistical sample or claim generalizability beyond the discussed cases.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1558/jca.41484

Cites

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Verification

Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingcitation
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    Based on the capacity of the deposits left, the graves in Mérida could have held more than 300 corpses.

    “Based on the capacity of the deposits that were left, I established that the graves could have held more than 300 corpses (MuñozEncinar 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MuñozEncinar 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingnone given
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 5

    Franco's official contemporaneous statement refers to 250 enemies killed during the effort to occupy Mérida.

    “However, Franco's official contemporaneous statement refers to 250 enemies killed during the effort to occupy of the city.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    Exhumation of the mass graves in Puebla de Alcocer revealed that a minimum of 42 victims were executed and buried in two trenches on the Republican war front.

    “However, the exhumation of the mass graves has revealed that a minimum of 42 victims were executed and buried in two trenches on the Republican war front.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    Evidence from mass graves has shown that in most cases the registers do not provide a reliable representation of how the executions actually took place.

    “However, the evidence from mass graves has shown that in most cases the registers do not provide a reliable representation of how the executions actually took place.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 5

    According to Francoist documentation, the number of dead recorded after the rebels' military occupation of Mérida on 10 August 1936 was 63 persons.

    “According to documentation from the Francoist era, the number of dead recorded following the rebels' military occupation of Mérida (Badajoz) on 10 August, 1936 was just 63 persons.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 39
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 20

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    In Fregenal de la Sierra, data from the exhumation of mass graves confirm oral testimony that numerous deaths were unrecorded, including those of several women.

    “Fregenal de la Sierra (Badajoz) is a similar example: data provided from the exhumation of mass graves confirm oral testimony (Muñoz-Encinar 2016) that numerous deaths were unrecorded, including those of several women (Muñoz-Encinar 2019a, 2019b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz-Encinar 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Muñoz-Encinar 2019a, 2019b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    Archaeological findings in Puebla de Alcocer confirm oral reports that some bodies were left intentionally uncovered and had been partially consumed by carnivores.

    “Archaeological findings also confirm oral reports that some bodies were left intentionally uncovered and had been partially consumed by carnivores (Muñoz-Encinar 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Muñoz-Encinar 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    In Puebla de Alcocer, the registration of victims' execution dates was carried out years later and annotated as having taken place on two days in May 1939; historians concluded that 12 victims were executed on 21 May and 27 on 25 May.

    “For example, in Puebla de Alcocer (Badajoz), the registration of victims' execution dates was carried out years later and annotated as having taken place on two days in May 1939. Based on this, historians have concluded that the victims were executed in two groups: 12 on 21 May, and a further 27 on 25 May.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    In Puebla de Alcocer, the men had been bound in pairs, divided into five groups of between six and ten men, and thrown into five different areas of the trenches.

    “The men had been bound in pairs, divided into five groups - of between six and ten men - and thrown into five different areas of the trenches.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 5

    More than 100 people were executed immediately after the occupation of Mérida, and their deaths are attested only through oral sources.

    “Furthermore, we should add to these more than 100 people executed immediately after the occupation of the town, whose deaths are attested only through oral sources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 12

    Objects such as these were very scarce in the excavations carried out in the concentration camp of Castuera, but they were documented widely in connection to the individuals found in mass graves.

    “While objects such as these were very scarce in the excavations carried out in the concentration camp of Castuera, they were documented widely in connection to the individuals found in mass graves.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingnone given
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    One of the prisoners documented in the mass graves found in Castuera had manufactured rings from coins and other pieces of metal, and later used them as a bargaining chip in exchange for food.

    “One of the prisoners documented in the mass graves found in Castuera had manufactured rings from coins and other pieces of metal. Later, he had used them as a bargaining chip in exchange for food.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Introduction · p. 4

    Forensic data challenge the official history of repressive actions in Spain and make it possible to approach known facts from a very different perspective.

    “These data present a challenge to the official history of repressive actions in Spain and make it possible to approach known facts from a very different perspective (Funari and Zarankin 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Funari and Zarankin 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Introduction · p. 2

    The debate around Republican repression remains fraught with myths and devoid of scientific rigour.

    “This unexpected consequence has meant that the debate around Republican repression remains fraught with myths and has been devoid of scientific rigour (Rodrigo 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodrigo 2008

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract · p. 1

    Forensic examination of mass graves can yield new evidence about political repression and shed new light on documentary and oral sources.

    “In this paper, I discuss how forensic examination of the mass graves can yield new evidence about political repression and shed new light on documentary and oral sources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    According to local memory, the victims in Mérida had been burned and then buried in mass graves next to the cemetery wall.

    “According to local memory (López Díaz 2011), the victims had been burned and then buried in mass graves next to the cemetery wall.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites López Díaz 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Abstract · p. 1

    A multidisciplinary approach combining archaeology and forensic anthropology can reconstruct the facts around killings and produce new historical knowledge about the traumatic past of contemporary Spanish society.

    “I employ a multidisciplinary approach that combines archaeology and forensic anthropology to reconstruct the facts around the killings and produce new historical knowledge about the traumatic past of contemporary Spanish society.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    In the first days of the occupation of Mérida, the number of victims, military and civilian, was already higher than 300, exceeding the total estimate from official sources of 230 victims between 1936 and 1942.

    “Therefore, in the first days of the occupation, the number of victims - military and civilian - was already higher than 300, a figure that already far exceeds the total estimate extracted from official sources, which put the overall total number of victims between 1936 and 1942 at 230 (Martín 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Martín 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    Historians have generally used the date of death in registers to establish the execution protocol, identifying groups of executed victims based on a shared date of execution.

    “Numerous historians (Chaves 1995; Espinosa 2003; Preston 2011) have generally used the date of death as provided in registers to establish the execution protocol, and following this groups of executed victims have been identified based on a shared date of execution (Martín 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chaves 1995

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Espinosa 2003

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Preston 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction · p. 3

    Erasing the very existence of the victims formed an integral part of the repression, with countless mass graves and bodies disposed of in riverbeds, mines, wells and caves.

    “Erasing the very existence of the victims formed an integral part of the repression, with countless mass graves and bodies otherwise disposed of by being thrown into riverbeds or into mines, wells and caves (Etxeberría 2012; Ríos et al. 2013; Etxeberría, Serulla and Herrasti 2014; Muñoz-Encinar and Chaves 2014; Etxeberría and Solé 2019; Muñoz-Encinar 2019c).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Etxeberría 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ríos et al. 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Muñoz-Encinar 2019c

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 5

    The graves studied represent material proof of human elimination and of the final or transitory fate of the corpses of the victims.

    “The graves that I study represent material proof of human elimination and of the final or transitory fate of the corpses of the victims.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 5

    Mass graves are material traces of the strategies established in the elimination of an enemy in the context of the War Declaration Decrees.

    “My approach is based on the analysis of mass graves as material traces of the strategies established in the elimination of an enemy , in the context of the War Declaration Decrees.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction · p. 3

    The lack of documentary evidence has left an incomplete view of the repression that fails to reflect the magnitude and complexity of the executions and serves to maintain the legitimacy of the 1936 coup d'état and Franco's dictatorship.

    “The lack of documentary evidence has left us with an incomplete view of the repression (García Márquez 2010) that fails to reflect the magnitude and complexity of the processes behind the executions and that serves to maintain the legitimacy of both the 1936 coup d'état and Franco's dictatorship (Preston 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites García Márquez 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Preston 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 10

    Inside the camps, a further mechanism of resistance was the preservation of psychological integrity by maintaining emotional links with the past, and on occasion this form of resistance left material traces.

    “Inside the camps, a further mechanism of resistance was the preservation of psychological integrity by maintaining emotional links with the past, and on occasion this form of resistance left material traces.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bergqvist 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 12

    Confronting death must have been the hardest moment of the repressive process, which may explain why detainees were usually told that they were simply being transferred to another location.

    “Confronting death must have been the hardest moment of the repressive process, which may explain why detainees were usually told that they were simply being transferred to another location.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisenone given
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    According to the testimony of Dave Goodman, inmates at the concentration camp at the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña used breadcrumbs to make chess pieces, which helped them to survive both physically and mentally.

    “According to the testimony of Dave Goodman, a British member of the International Brigade who recounted his experience of being a prisoner in the concentration camp at the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña, inmates used breadcrumbs to make chess pieces, which helped them to survive both physically and mentally.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Helping one another was a way to preserve each other's moral strength and continue to value human life, thereby increasing their chances of survival.

    “Helping one another was a way to preserve each other's moral strength and continue to value human life, thereby increasing their chances of survival.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bergqvist 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 15

    This is a new approach to the empirical reconstruction of past violence, and to clarifying the nature of mass criminal events and to producing scientific knowledge about contemporary Spanish history.

    “This is a new approach to the empirical reconstruction of past violence, and to clarifying the nature of mass criminal events and to producing scientific knowledge about contemporary Spanish history.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 15

    Results obtained from the analysis of mass graves show how material evidence can be a tool to challenge official histories that downplay or deny repressive actions, and they can clarify unknown, hidden and misrepresented facts.

    “Results obtained from the analysis of mass graves show how material evidence can be a tool to challenge official histories that downplay or deny repressive actions, and they can clarify unknown, hidden and misrepresented facts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 14

    The presence of ballistics helps to establish places of execution, and it may also assist with identifying perpetrators.

    “As noted above, the presence of ballistics helps to establish places of execution, and it may also assist with identifying perpetrators.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Maintaining dignity was a form of resistance, and hygiene and personal care acquired great importance, especially considering the poor living conditions prisoners endured.

    “Along with these activities, maintaining dignity was also a form of resistance, and hygiene and personal care acquired great importance, especially considering the poor living conditions prisoners endured.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Intellectual stimulation was crucial for maintaining the integrity and mental stability of prisoners, and in camps such as Ravensbrück prisoners engaged in educational activity, including the clandestine creation of books.

    “Intellectual stimulation was also crucial for maintaining the integrity and mental stability of prisoners, and in camps such as Ravensbrück prisoners engaged in educational activity, including the clandestine creation of books.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bergqvist 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 14

    Some items, such as coins, help determine the chronology of the graves and also indicate that victims were not searched.

    “Some items, such as coins, help us determine the chronology of the graves and also indicate that victims were not searched.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 14

    The archaeological and forensic investigation of mass graves can establish the locations of deposits and yield information about the number of victims, perimortem violence, the use of victims' bodies after death and, in some cases, the identity of the victims.

    “The archaeological and forensic investigation of mass graves can establish the locations of deposits and yield information abouts the number of victims, perimortem violence, the use of victims' bodies after death and, in some cases, the identity of the victims.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Such items were used by prisoners when writing their last letters, which were always overseen by the camp, in which they bade farewell to their families as they awaited execution.

    “Such items were used by prisoners when writing their last letters - always overseen by the camp - in which they bade farewell to their families as they awaited execution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 15

    This opens up new approaches for the investigation of Franco's system of repression.

    “This opens up new approaches for the investigation of Franco's system of repression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 10

    Similar strategies of memory have been noted in detention centres in Argentina and Uruguay, where prisoners made toys for their children.

    “Similar strategies of memory have been noted in relation to detention centres in Argentina and also in Uruguay, where prisoners made toys for their children (López Mazz 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites López Mazz 2006

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 14

    Other details about victims can be deduced from the documentation of valuables.

    “Other details about victims can be deduced from the documentation of valuables.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 15

    Once these variables are obtained, the nature of repressive actions can be characterised and violent events reconstructed.

    “Once these variables are obtained, the nature of repressive actions can be characterised and violent events reconstructed.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 14

    A wine bottle found in a mass grave in Castuera shows the consumption of alcohol during executions, a common feature narrated in multiple testimonies.

    “Exceptional items such as a wine bottle found in a mass grave in Castuera show the consumption of alcohol during executions - a common feature narrated in multiple testimonies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 15

    Each case must be analysed according to social chronology and context, which makes it possible to draw inferences about the different procedures used within the same socio-political context and over time.

    “I argue that each case must be analysed according to social chronology and context, which makes it possible to draw inferences about the different procedures used within the same socio-political context and over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 15

    The strategies inferred from this approach in relation to Spain reflect the complexity of Franco's repressive apparatus and its organisation, as well as the role played by violence as a means of eliminating the enemy and as a tool for social control.

    “The strategies that I can infer from this approach in relation to Spain reflect the complexity of Franco's repressive apparatus and its organisation, as well as the role played by violence as a means of eliminating the enemy and as a tool for social control.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 12

    Retaining such items could be considered a mechanism of resistance to the process of neutralisation and dehumanisation of prisoners, and understood as a way of confronting the totalitarian nature of the system.

    “Retaining such items could be considered a mechanism of resistance to the process of neutralisation and dehumanisation of prisoners (Bergqvist 2018; González-Ruibal 2020a), and understood as a way of confronting the totalitarian nature of the system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bergqvist 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites González-Ruibal 2020a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 12

    At Castuera, prisoners documented in the mass graves had all their personal belongings with them, so it is possible they thought that they were going to be moved to another prison; had they known they were almost certainly going to be killed they might have given away the most useful items to other prisoners.

    “At Castuera, prisoners documented in the mass graves had all their personal belongings with them, so it is possible they thought that they were going to be moved to another prison; had they known they were almost certainly going to be killed they might have given away the most useful items founds - spoons, can openers, sanitary items, canteens, coins, etc - to other prisoners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 12

    This strategy of false transfers was also adopted in the clandestine detention centres of Argentina, where detainees understood that to be 'transferred' was a euphemism that implied execution, and so transfer involved an uncertainty that combined hope with deep fear.

    “This strategy was also adopted in the clandestine detention centres of Argentina; however, detainees understood that to be 'transferred' was a euphemism that implied execution (Zarankin and Niro 2006), and so transfer involved an uncertainty that combined hope with deep fear (CONADEP 1984).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Zarankin and Niro 2006
    • cites CONADEP 1984

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Some prisoners from the International Brigade in the camp at San Pedro de Cardeña published a newspaper entitled Jaily News.

    “Furthermore, some prisoners from the International Brigade in this camp also published a newspaper entitled Jaily News (Rodrigo 2005) .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rodrigo 2005

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Games were part of the daily lives of prisoners, which gave them respite from the realities of the camp.

    “Along with these activities, games were part of the daily lives of prisoners, which gave them respite from the realities of the camp (González-Ruibal 2020a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites González-Ruibal 2020a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given
    § Conclusions: From the Exhumation of Bodies to Historical Knowledge · p. 14

    The strategies of elimination documented at mass graves in Spain represent the first step in the Francoist system of repression, in which victims with a clear political, military or trade union affiliation were selected for execution without any judicial process.

    “The strategies of elimination documented at mass graves in Spain represent the first step in the Francoist system of repression, in which victims with a clear political, military or trade union affiliation were selected for execution without any judicial process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Mass Graves of Victims of Francoist Irregular Repression: Approaches for Historical Investigations · p. 6

    The population of the Castuera camp was around 4000 prisoners during its less crowded periods and ranged between 8000 and 9000 at its peak.

    “According to recent studies, the population of the camp was around 4000 prisoners during its less crowded periods, and ranged between 8000 and 9000 at its peak.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 10

    Remembering one's past life was an essential mechanism of resistance, giving integrity to the idea of a 'future me'.

    “Remembering one's past life was an essential mechanism of resistance, giving integrity to the idea of a 'future me'.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bergqvist 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Prisoners exchanged small handmade gifts to show their gratitude for such help, and these have left an extraordinary material record.

    “Prisoners exchanged small handmade gifts to show their gratitude for such help, and these have left an extraordinary material record (Bergqvist 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bergqvist 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation
    § Behind the Material Traces of Repression · p. 11

    Depending on their classification, some inmates were allowed to paint portraits, design tattoos, read novels, play football and, in one case, pave the entrance to one of the barracks.

    “Depending on their classification, some inmates were allowed to paint portraits, design tattoos, read novels, play football and, in one case, pave the entrance to one of the barracks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites González-Ruibal 2020a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

47 of 47

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Francoist concealment involved not only the destruction of documents but also the misrepresentation of information, with the purpose of hiding facts, legitimising the military uprising and consolidating the dictatorship.

    “It is important to keep in mind that Francoist concealment involved not only the destruction of documents but the misrepresentation of information, with the purpose of hiding facts, legitimising the military uprising and consolidating the dictatorship, and as such oral sources were more useful in providing the initial data needed about the context of executions and the location of the graves.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The perimortem treatment of victims and the post-mortem use of bodies correspond to the interests of perpetrators.

    “The perimortem treatment of victims and post-mortem use of bodies (the latter revealed by taphonomic analysis - Blau and Skinner 2005) also corresponds to the interests of perpetrators, and depending on the context of the repression, an analysis of perimortem violence may allow us to establish the physical treatment of the victims prior to execution.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Blanket claim of no contemporary records conflicts with documented executions

    Minor

    The conclusion says no contemporary documentation is available for Francoist irregular repression on perpetrators or grave locations. Earlier, the paper describes official records of anti-guerrilla executions that generally give grave locations and, in one case, identify the Civil Guard as responsible.

1 of 1

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 9

  1. Banore, P. and W. J. M. Groen, eds. 2018. Multidisciplinary Approaches to Forensic Archaeology. New York: Springer.
  2. Carrasco González, C. 2010. "La construcción de memoria arqueológica en casos de detenidos desaparecidos en Chile durante la dictadura militar (1973-1990)." In Recorriendo la Memoria / Touring Memory edited by J. Almansa, 7-14. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 2168. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.
  3. ____. and J. Morín de Pablos. 2020. "Arqueología de la guerrilla antifranquista en Toledo. La 14ª división de la 1ª agrupación del ejército de Extremadura y Centro." In Arqueología de la Guerra Civil y la Dictadura Franquista, edited by A. Pérez-Juárez and J. Morín de Pablos, 127-138. British Archaeology Reports, International Series 2965. Oxford: BAR Publishing.
  4. Dreyfus, J. M. 2015. "Renationalizing Bodies? The French Search Mission for Corpses of Deportees in Germany, 1946-58." In Human Remains and Mass Violence: Methodological Approaches, edited by J. M. Dreyfus and E. Anstett, 129-145. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  5. Haglund, W. D. 1998. "The Scene and Context: Contributions of the Forensic Anthropologist." In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains (2nd edition), edited by K. J. Reichs, 41-61. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
  6. Haglund, W. D. and M. H. Sorg, eds. 2002. Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory, and Archaeological Perspectives. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
  7. Laqueur, T. W. 2002. "The Dead Body and Human Rights." In The Body, edited by S. Sweeney and I. Hodder, 75-93. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  8. Muñoz-Encinar, L. and F. J. García Vadillo. 2010. "Las fosas comunes de la Guerra Civil Española del arroyo Romanzal. La actividad represiva franquista en Llerena (Badajoz, España) durante los primeros días de ocupación. Contribución a la memoria." In Recorriendo la Memoria / Touring Memory, edited by J. Almansa, 57-67. British Archaeological Reports, International Series 2168. Oxford: Archaeopress.
  9. Wright, R., I. Hanson and J. Sterenberg. 2005. "The Archaeology of Mass Graves." In Forensic Archaeology: Advances in Theory and Practice, edited by J. Hunter and R. M. Cox, 137-158. London: Routledge.

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Metadata

Authors
Muñoz-Encinar, L.
Venue
Journal of Contemporary Archaeology
Publisher
Equinox Publishing
Published
2021-05-17
Volume
7
Issue
2
ISSN
  • 2051-3429 (ISSN-L)
  • 2051-3437
DOI
10.1558/jca.41484
OpenAlex
W3162429691
Cited by
1
References
77
Citations by year
2023: 1
FWCI
0.96
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
Journal of Contemporary Archaeology (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Spanish Culture and Identity
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Spanish History and Politics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
Keywords
Spanish Civil War, Francoism, mass graves, exhumation, forensic anthropology, political repression, extrajudicial killings, court-martial, historical memory, trauma

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