Agricultural Land Redistribution and Land Administration in Sub-Saharan Africa: Case Studies of Recent Reforms

Malawi piloted a land reform program in 2004 with World Bank funding to address highly unequal distribution of overcrowded arable land coexisting with underutilized large-scale farms.

“To address the highly unequal distribution of its overcrowded arable land, which coexists with underutilized large-scale farms, Malawi piloted a land reform program in 2004 with funding from the World Bank (2004).”

• cites World Bank 2004Not matched

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According to impact evaluation studies, Malawi's pilot increased agricultural incomes for beneficiaries by 40 percent compared with nonbeneficiaries between 2005/06 and 2008/09.

“According to impact evaluation studies, the project achieved impressive results, including an increase of 40 percent in agricultural incomes for beneficiaries (compared to nonbeneficiaries) between 2005/06 and 2008/09, an economic rate of return of 20 percent, and positive impacts on the livelihoods of beneficiaries and surrounding communities, with improvements in land holdings, land tenure”

• cites Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Malawi's pilot had an economic rate of return of 20 percent.

“According to impact evaluation studies, the project achieved impressive results, including an increase of 40 percent in agricultural incomes for beneficiaries (compared to nonbeneficiaries) between 2005/06 and 2008/09, an economic rate of return of 20 percent, and positive impacts on the livelihoods of beneficiaries and surrounding communities, with improvements in land holdings, land tenure”

• cites Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

An increasing number of Sub-Saharan African countries have initiated programs to computerize land registers and establish land information systems.

“An increasing number of SSA countries have initiated programs to computerize land registers and establish LISs.”

Beneficiaries prefer to relocate within or close to their original communities.

“Although beneficiaries needed land, the majority preferred to relocate within or close to their original homes.”

The CBRLDP provided secure land to 15,142 poor rural families.

“Overall, the CBRLDP has provided secure land to 15,142 poor rural families”

The CBRLDP implementation process adhered to the selection criteria of beneficiaries stipulated in the project implementation plan.

“the CBRLDP's implementation process adhered to the selection criteria of beneficiaries stipulated in the project implementation plan.”

• cites Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The CBRLDP had an elaborate monitoring and evaluation system that, with a functional management information system, provided timely feedback for decisions.

“A final innovative aspect of the CBRLDP was its elaborate monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system, which, together with a functional management information system, provided timely feedback with which to make important decisions toward improving results.”

Ghana's land inventory program covered 722 out of an estimated 1,144 sites (63 percent).

“The inventory program covered 722 out of an estimated 1,144 sites (63 percent).”

Some Sub-Saharan African governments have started inventorying state-owned land to overcome the information gap and generate information for policy and decision making.

“To overcome this information gap and generate information for policy and decision making, some SSA governments have started inventorying stateowned land.”

The CBRLDP achieved most of its objectives.

“Findings from a recent impact evaluation show that the project achieved most of its objectives (Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011).”

• cites Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011Not matched

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Over 90 percent of CBRLDP beneficiary groups received title deeds for the land they acquired.

“Over 90 percent of the beneficiary groups also received title deeds for the land they acquired”

Reports demonstrate significant improvements in input use patterns for crop production.

“Reports also demonstrate significant improvements in input use patterns for crop production (Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011).”

• cites Simtowe, Mangisoni, and Mendola 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ghana's inventory provided a clearer picture of government land composition and principal sources of tension in communities impacted by government land acquisitions.

“It provided a clearer picture of the composition of government land and the principal sources of tension in communities impacted by government land acquisitions.”

In Malawi, 76.9 percent of households have landholdings of less than 1 hectare.

“As shown in table 1.2, 76.9 percent of the households across Malawi have landholdings of less than 1 hectare”

Each CBRLDP beneficiary household was given more than 1.5 hectares on average.

“Each of these households was given more than 1.5 hectares on average on which to cultivate various food and cash crops.”

Ghana's inventory findings helped the government issue short-term policy guidelines for managing state land assets while awaiting the completed national inventory.

“The findings of the program helped the government issue short-term policy guidelines for managing state land assets while waiting for results from the completed national inventory.”

The number of beneficiary households relocated by the CBRLDP (15,142) exceeded the target of 15,000.

“The actual number of beneficiaries relocated (15,142 households) exceeded the target of 15,000 households.”

In Thyolo and Mulanje districts, landowners were unwilling to sell their land to the government for resettlement under the CBRLDP.

“in Thyolo and Mulanje districts, landowners were unwilling to sell their land to the government for purposes of resettlement under the project.”

Initial attempts to draft a law for comprehensive reform of land rights and administration in South Africa's communal areas were abandoned in mid-1999 due to opposition from traditional leaders.

“Initial attempts to draft a law for the comprehensive reform of land rights and administration in communal areas were abandoned in mid-1999 in the face of stiff opposition from traditional leaders.”

One key challenge for the CBRLDP was the unanticipated need for other social amenities.

“One of the key challenges for the CBRLDP was the unanticipated need for other social amenities.”

Recent government documents from 2009/10 and 2010/11 make almost no specific reference to labor tenants.

“Indeed, virtually no specific mention is made of labor tenants in recent government documents (i.e., DRDLR reports for 2009/10 or 2010/11).”

Where grants have been provided to farm dwellers in South Africa, they have usually involved residents moving off farms into townships rather than granting them agricultural land or securing accommodation on farms where they work.

“Where grants have been provided, they have usually involved farm residents moving off farms and into townships, rather than granting them agricultural land of their own or securing them accommodation on farms where they work.”

Many leases in the CBRLDP were issued based on sketch plans that did not match actual plot sizes.

“Many leases were issued based on sketch plans, which did not match the actual plot sizes.”

Most CBRLDP beneficiaries were relocated into fairly remote areas with limited access to roads, transport, schools, health facilities, markets, and water.

“Most beneficiaries were relocated into fairly remote areas with limited access to facilities (roads and transport services), inadequate schools, health facilities, and markets, and a lack of most other basic requirements, such as water.”

Estates in the CBRLDP had to be resurveyed to confirm or establish their size and boundaries.

“Thus estates had to be resurveyed to confirm or establish their size and boundaries.”

Land reform in South Africa has involved transferring relatively large commercial farms in their entirety to groups of beneficiaries.

“Land reform in South Africa to date has involved the transfer of relatively large commercial farms in their entirety to groups of beneficiaries.”

Alternative models based on low material inputs, high labor inputs, and smaller or household-based production are actively discouraged.

“Alternative models, based on low material inputs, high labor inputs, and smaller units or even household-based production, are actively discouraged.”

The well-developed private agribusiness sector serving large-scale commercial agriculture has shown only token interest in extending operations to new farmers who mostly cannot pay for such services.

“The well-developed (private) agribusiness sector that services large-scale commercial agriculture has shown no more than a token interest in extending its operations to new farmers who, in most cases, would be incapable of paying for such services anyway.”

An HSRC study of LRAD projects in three provinces reports that in many cases there is still no institutionalized alternative to placing the whole burden of training, mentoring, and capacitation on provincial agricultural departments.

“In a study of LRAD projects in three provinces, for example, the Human Sciences Research Council reports that”

• cites HSRC 2003, 72Not matched

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Reports that land offered for land reform is of inferior quality have been widespread.

“Reports suggesting that land being offered for land reform purposes is of inferior quality have been widespread (Lyne and Darroch 2003;Tilley 2004).”

• cites Lyne and Darroch 2003Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tilley 2004Not matched

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Since its inception the Proactive Land Acquisition Strategy has become the biggest single redistribution program by budget and land area.

“Since its inception, PLAS has become the biggest single redistribution program in terms of both budget and land area.”

Over time the trend has shifted toward targeting individuals considered more likely to be successful farmers.

“Over time, the trend has shifted toward targeting individuals considered more likely to be successful farmers.”

Until about 2007, land redistributed in South Africa was usually transferred directly to beneficiaries approved by grants, under freehold title.

“Up to about 2007, redistributed land was generally transferred directly to the grant-approved beneficiaries in freehold title.”

There is no indication that higher volumes, better quality, or lower prices have been achieved as a result of the Proactive Land Acquisition Strategy policy shift.

“There is no indication, however, that higher volumes, better quality, or lower prices have been achieved as a result of this policy shift.”

Limited evidence suggests that young people, the unemployed, and farm workers have been served particularly poorly.

“The limited evidence, however, would suggest that young people, the unemployed, and farm workers have been served particularly poorly.”

Numerous studies and senior policy makers' statements reveal that land reform beneficiaries have problems accessing credit, training, technology extension, transport, plowing, veterinary, and marketing services.

“Numerous studies-supported by statements from senior policy makers-reveal that land reform beneficiaries experience numerous problems accessing services, such as credit, training, technology extension, and transport as well as plowing, veterinary, and marketing services (HSRC 2003;Hall 2004b;Wegerif 2004;Bradstock 2005).”

• cites HSRC 2003Not matched

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• cites Hall 2004bNot matched

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• cites Wegerif 2004Not matched

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The assumption that the private sector would respond to demand from land reform beneficiaries with different needs from established commercial farmers has not been supported by recent experience.

“The assumption that the private sector would somehow”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The private sector would respond to demand from land reform beneficiaries whose needs differ from those of established commercial farmers.

The past two decades have seen a major reduction in overall state services available to farmers.

“Indeed, the past two decades have seen a major reduction in the overall state services available to farmers.”

Land price information for 1994-2004 shows that average prices paid under redistribution and restitution diverged considerably from the general market pattern.

“Land price information for the first decade of the land reform program (1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004) shows that average prices paid for land under both the redistribution and the restitution programs have diverged considerably from the pattern for the general market ( see figure 2.1”

• cites figure 2.1Not matched

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Land reform in South Africa has consistently fallen far behind state targets and popular expectations.

“Land reform in South Africa has consistently fallen far behind the targets set by the state and behind popular expectations.”

The 2002 Quality of Life Survey supported earlier findings that land reform was successfully targeting poorer sections of rural society.

“The 2002 Quality of Life Survey supported the earlier survey's findings that land reform was successfully targeting the poorer sections of rural society (Ahmed et al. 2003, 196).”

• cites Ahmed et al. 2003, 196Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Few if any measures exist that prioritize access to land for poor and marginalized groups.

“Few if any measures exist that prioritize access to land for poor and marginalized groups: indeed, groups such as farm workers and labor tenants-who would appear to many to be ideal candidates for land reform-have seen a steady deterioration in their land rights since 1994.”

In 2010/11, only 3,089 beneficiaries were reported under PLAS, in 288 projects.

“In 2010/11, for example, only 3,089 beneficiaries were reported under PLAS, in 288 projects (DRDLR 2011).”

• cites DRDLR 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The DRDLR's budget allocation does not match the needs of the rural development and land reform program.

“Third, the DRDLR's budget allocation does not match the needs of the rural development and land reform program.”

The LRMCs are not intended to function with any degree of autonomy but are simply extensions of the LRMB.

“It is clear that the LRMCs are not intended to function with any degree of autonomy, but are simply to be extensions of the LRMB.”

Civil society organizations and intended beneficiaries have been marginalized throughout the period of land reform.

“• Give a greater role to civil society: Civil society organizations, and intended beneficiaries themselves, have been marginalized throughout the period of land reform.”

The rebuilding of Uganda's land administration system is still a work in progress.

“The rebuilding of the system is still a work in progress.”

Farm workers and labor tenants have experienced a steady deterioration in their land rights since 1994.

“Few if any measures exist that prioritize access to land for poor and marginalized groups: indeed, groups such as farm workers and labor tenants-who would appear to many to be ideal candidates for land reform-have seen a steady deterioration in their land rights since 1994.”

Anecdotal evidence suggests that where new farmers are successfully established, it often depends on personal relationships between resettled farmers and local agricultural officials offering an old-fashioned extension service involving frequent farm visits, trust relationships, and advice appropriate to farmers' skills and resources.

“Anecdotal evidence suggests that where new farmers are successfully established, it often depends on personal relationships between resettled farmers and local agricultural officials offering an old-fashioned extension service, involving frequent farm visits, establishment of relationships of trust, and advice that is appropriate to the level of skills and resources of the farmers concerned.”

The land policy contexts of the decentralization processes compared are somewhat different.

“The land policy contexts of the decentralization processes compared here are somewhat different.”

Ethiopia's programs began on state initiative rather than central government.

“The programs reviewed here are distinguished from the other countries in this case study by the fact that they began on a state initiative rather than that of the central government.”

Registry decentralization in Ghana has progressed satisfactorily.

“The registry decentralization has progressed satisfactorily.”

In Ethiopia, individual communities had no option but to participate.

“On the other hand, individual communities had no option but to participate.”

By 2010, deed registries existed in eight regional capitals, compared with two at the outset of the project.

“By 2010 deed registries existed in eight regional capitals, compared to two at the outset of the project.”

In Uganda, the land administration system is being extended into rural areas in a service-provision mode, alongside but not well integrated with local land governance institutions.

“The land administration system is being extended into the rural areas in a service-provision mode, alongside but not well integrated with those local land governance institutions.”

The initial adjudication area used physical features that cut through the middle of local communities, with predictable results.

“The initial definition of the adjudication area used physical features that cut through the middle of local communities, with predictable results (Karikari and Barthel 2011).”

• cites Karikari and Barthel 2011Not matched

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Tanzania's financial sustainability is unclear because documentation does not address cost of operation issues.

“The documentation, to a surprising extent, does not address cost of operation issues.”

The trials involved systematic demarcation, adjudication, and registration designed to be participatory.

“The trials involved systematic demarcation, adjudication, and registration of titles in a process designed to be participatory.”

Donors in Ethiopia and Tanzania have not been deterred by the fact that the property rights concerned are use rights rather than ownership rights.

“It is worth noting that donors in Ethiopia and Tanzania have not been deterred by the fact that the property rights concerned are use rights rather than ownership rights.”

Early refugee return resettlement in villages rather than home sites created new land issues because rights to utilized land were often unascertained and cultivation land often unavailable nearby.

“This created a new set of land issues, because the rights to the land utilized were often not ascertained, and land for cultivation was often not available in the vicinity.”

A World Bank evaluation found that 2.5 years after pilot completion, a large majority of participants viewed the process as fair and transparent.

“A recent World Bank evaluation of the impacts of the pilot registration found that only 2.5 years after completion of the pilot, a large majority of those involved viewed the process as fair and transparent (Ali et al. 2010).”

• cites Ali et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The systematic registration approach was piloted in areas of serious land contention in Monrovia in the late 1970s and early 1980s.

“The systematic registration approach was piloted in areas of serious contention over land in Monrovia in the late 1970s and early 1980s.”

The consolidation decree also applies to areas where land has recently been formalized.

“The decree is also applicable to areas where land has recently been formalized.”

Many critical marshlands were converted from Tutsi pastoralist pasture to Hutu cultivator farmland during the conflict years.

“Many of those were converted from pasture (the traditional land use of Tutsi pastoralists) to farmland (for use by Hutu cultivators) in the conflict years.”

Because forest product exports were embargoed in the immediate postconflict period, Liberia's government focused heavily on a new Forestry Law and later a Community Forestry Law.

“Because exports of forest products from Liberia were embargoed in the immediate postconflict period, the government focused heavily on a new Forestry Law (and a later Community Forestry Law).”

After the conflict, Rwanda moved relatively rapidly to develop a major land initiative intended to institute security of tenure.

“after the end of the conflict the government of Rwanda moved relatively rapidly to develop a major land initiative intended to institute security of tenure.”

Sectoral ministries such as Agriculture make agricultural concessions and declare nature reserves with little coordination with those technically responsible for land administration.

“Sectoral ministries such as Agriculture make agricultural concessions and declare nature reserves with little coordination with those with technical responsibility for land administration.”

In some counties with endemic land disputes, especially Bong and Nimba, NGOs such as the Norwegian Refugee Council addressed disputes effectively using alternative dispute resolution.

“In some counties with endemic land disputes, especially Bong and Nimba Counties, these were addressed quite effectively by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs; notably the Norwegian Refugee Council) using alternative dispute resolution approaches.”

The consolidation decree applies only in critical marshlands (marai).

“The decree applies only in the marai (critical marshlands).”

Land-attached investment and maintenance of existing structures were significantly higher in registered areas than in control areas.

“Landattached investment (and maintenance of existing structures) was found to be significantly higher in the areas registered than in the control areas.”

• cites Ali et al. 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Under the consolidation decree, if fields are not prepared for maize by a specific date, the land is given to others to farm.

“Under this new decree, if fields are not prepared for maize by a specific date, the land is given to others to farm.”

Ghana and Uganda have also experienced the land administration problems common in SSA.

“The two countries selected for this case study-Ghana and Ugandahave not been spared these issues.”

Uganda's LIS implementation has decreased the average time to transfer property from 227 days in 2007 to 52 days in 2012.

“a decrease in the average time to transfer property, from 227 days in 2007 to 52 days in 2012”

Uganda's LIS implementation has decreased the number of days to complete a search on an encumbered title from 15 to 1.

“a decrease in the number of days to complete a search on an encumbered title, from 15 to 1.”

As of April 2014, integration of Ghana's LIS pieces had not taken place.

“And integration of these pieces has not taken place either as of April 2014.”

Ad hoc land commissions were employed less successfully by the Liberian government to address high-tension areas.

“Ad hoc land commissions were employed less successfully by the government to address high-tension areas.”

Rebuilding capacity in Liberia's MLME has lagged in the face of fundamental policy issues.

“In the face of these fundamental policy issues, rebuilding capacity in the MLME has lagged.”

Uganda's LIS implementation has reduced the time to process a mortgage from several weeks to three days.

“a reduction in time to process a mortgage, from several weeks to three days”

Ghana did not prepare a structured program of activities requiring close coordination for LIS development and implementation.

“Development and implementation of such a system requires preparation of a structured program of activities whose implementation requires close coordination.This was not done in Ghana.”

Ghana's LIS design and implementation activities focused on different elements and subsystems to be integrated later, without an upfront architecture design and blueprint to guide implementation.

“Ghana's LIS design and implementation activities were developed with a focus on different elements and subsystems to be integrated later, without the benefit of an upfront architecture design and blueprint to guide implementation.”

Uganda's LIS development was preceded by and based on a preliminary design, comprehensive terms of reference and technical specifications, and an implementation blueprint, all prepared upfront to guide detailed design, piloting, and roll-out.

“Development of Uganda's LIS was preceded by and based on a preliminary design, comprehensive terms of reference and technical specifications, and a blueprint for implementation, all prepared upfront to guide detailed design, piloting, and roll-out.”

LIS development is a long-term activity that can take up to 10 years.

“LIS development is a long-term activity, taking up to 10 years, which makes it vulnerable to loss of support unless it is underpinned by strong political commitment and support from development partners.”

• Also stated in: § Lessons Learned from LIS Implementation · hedged

  “It may take seven to ten years to fully implement, including the preliminary design stage.”

The World Bank and MCC, under Liberia's Threshold Program, funded the Land Commission, the DLSC, and the Deed Registry.

“The World Bank and the MCC (under its Liberia Threshold Program) provided funding to the Commission, the DLSC, and the Deed Registry.”

In Ghana, key LIS components-initial subsystems by COWI, business process reengineering, manual record conversion, and generic software development and customization-were undertaken independently and without careful sequencing.

“For example, the development and installation of the initial LIS subsystems by COWI Consulting Engineers and Planners AS (COWI), the reengineering of business processes, the conversion of manual land records through so-called Intelligence Scanning, and the development of generic software in Rome and its subsequent attempts to customize it in Ghana were all undertaken independently and without care”

The Liberian government is aware of these needs, as indicated by MLME documents from 2006.

“The government is aware of these needs, as indicated by MLME documents from 2006(Government of Liberia 2006a, 2006b).”

• cites Government of Liberia 2006aNot matched

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• cites Government of Liberia 2006bNot matched

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Because Uganda's LIS did not prioritize quick wins, it faced pressure from political leaders who wanted expedited results.

“But because it did not prioritize quick wins, it faced pressure from political leaders who wanted expedited results.”

The nature of engagement with stakeholders, communication and awareness creation, and other lessons learned during the assessment exercise enabled guidelines for the inventory exercise to be developed.

“The nature of engagement with stakeholders, including traditional authorities and local political leadership, the communication and awareness creation, and other lessons learned during the assessment exercise, enabled guidelines for the inventory exercise to be developed.”

Governments' decision-making processes in Ghana and Uganda lean more toward protection of property rights than better management of land assets.

“Similarly, the governments' decision-making processes lean more toward protection of property rights than better management of land assets.”

In most cases, tenancies, leases, and sales are not made under a competitive and transparent process that ensures land is disposed for value.

“In most cases, tenancies, leases, and sales are not made under a competitive and transparent process that ensures that land is disposed for value.”

Uganda's government land inventory was conducted with considerable weaknesses, partly due to institutional weaknesses in government supervision and management.

“Considerable weaknesses were present in the conducting of the government land inventory in Uganda, partly because of institutional weaknesses in government to supervise and manage the exercise.”

Absence of legal requirements regulating disposal of government land and real estate assets left much to discretion of ULC and municipal councils, including whether to advertise or sell competitively.

“The absence of legal requirements for regulating the disposal of government land and real estate assets left much to the discretion of ULC and the municipal councils, including whether to advertise or sell the land by competitive means, as is required in many countries.4”

The ULC and DLBs lacked the professional and technical capacity to process information needed to complete the inventory.

“The analysis revealed that both the ULC (the authorized body that owns and manages land on behalf of the central government) and the DLBs (which administer land on behalf of the local government) lacked the professional and technical capacity for processing the information generated to complete the inventory.”

This approach helped account for local parcels that may have been missed by public sector agencies.

“This approach helped to account for local parcels that may have been missed by the public sector agencies.”

The scoping exercise in Uganda was instrumental in providing sample data for projecting mean workload for each district and rough projections for a comprehensive national land inventory.

“The scoping exercise in Uganda was instrumental in providing sample data for projecting the mean workload for each district and rough projections for a comprehensive national land inventory.”

Ghana's inventory helped the government issue short-term policy guidelines for managing state land assets while awaiting whole-country inventory information.

“The inventory also helped the government to issue short-term policy guidelines for managing state land assets while waiting for information from the whole country inventory.”

Ghana's inventory provided a clearer picture of principal sources of tension in communities affected by government land acquisitions.

“About 60 percent of Ghana's estimated public lands were included in the inventory exercises, which provided a clearer picture of the principal sources of tension in communities impacted by government land acquisitions.”

In several documented cases, the private contractor had to provide software for checking outputs and stationery for District Land Offices to produce deed plans to finish that stage.

“In several documented instances, the private contractor was forced to supply the software for checking the contractor's outputs and the stationery required by District Land Offices to produce deed plans just to complete that stage of the exercise.”

The formalization status of government-claimed land parcels before the inventory began revealed symptoms of these weaknesses.

“Symptoms of these weaknesses could even be seen from the status of formalization of government ownership of the various land parcels claimed by government from the scoping exercise before the inventory itself started.”

In Ghana and Uganda, accumulated government-owned or publicly vested lands are a source of continuing tension between the state, current occupants, and former inadequately compensated landowners, aggravated by delayed compensation.

“In both countries, accumulated government-owned or publicly vested lands are a source of continuing tension between the state, current occupants, and former inadequately compensated landowners, and the situation is aggravated by delayed payment”

Current legal frameworks in Ghana and Uganda focus more on protecting government acquisition and ownership of land than on management, upkeep, or deriving economic benefits.

“The current legal frameworks in Ghana and Uganda are more focused on protecting the acquisition and ownership of lands by the government, and less on their management and upkeep or the possibility of deriving economic benefits from them.”

There was no comprehensive record of all government land and developments on it.

“There was no comprehensive record of all the government land and the developments on it.”

No specific law regulates contracts for land acquisition by central government, local governments, or statutory corporations in both Ghana and Uganda.

“No specific law regulates the contracts for land acquisition by the central government, local governments, or statutory corporations in both Ghana and Uganda.”

About 60 percent of Ghana's estimated public lands were included in the inventory exercises.

“About 60 percent of Ghana's estimated public lands were included in the inventory exercises, which provided a clearer picture of the principal sources of tension in communities impacted by government land acquisitions.”

The poor performance of the Uganda exercise was partly attributed to inadequate supervision and delayed interventions for bottlenecks and unexpected challenges.

“In the end, the poor performance of the Uganda exercise was partially attributed to inadequate supervision and delayed interventions to resolve bottlenecks and unexpected challenges.”

The other two stages, analysis applications and management applications, are currently being developed as part of a parcel-based LIS in Ghana and Uganda.

“The other two stages, analysis applications and management applications, are currently being developed as part of a parcel-based LIS in both Ghana and Uganda (see chapter 5).”

Ghana's Land Administration Projects have been the main funding source for designing and implementing its LIS.

“Ghana's series of Land Administration Projects (LAPs) have been the main source of funding for the design and implementation of its LIS.”

If the poor are not targeted with grants, as in Malawi, a market-driven land reform program is unlikely to reach or benefit the poor.

“If the poor are not targeted with grants, as was done in Malawi, a land reform program driven by markets alone is unlikely to reach or benefit the poor.”

There is no viable small-farmer path to development in South Africa that could enable millions of households in communal areas and commercial farms to expand production and accumulate wealth incrementally.

“First, there is no viable small-farmer path to development, which could enable the millions of households residing in communal areas and on commercial farms to expand their own production and accumulate wealth and resources in an incremental manner.”

Legal restrictions against land subdivision prevent large-scale farmland from being divided to better suit land reform beneficiaries' farming needs.

“For example, legislative action is required to remove legal restrictions against land subdivision, which prevents large-scale farmland from being divided to better suit the farming needs of land reform beneficiaries.”

Decentralization of land administration tasks tends to be deconcentrations of central government authority, partly reflecting the desire to facilitate national land markets.

“Decentralization of land administration tasks tends to be deconcentrations of central government authority, partly reflecting the desire to facilitate the functioning of national land markets.”

Malawi's redistributive land reform model is one upon which Sub-Saharan African countries can build to address land ownership inequality and landlessness.

“These results leave no doubt that Malawi's redistributive land reform model is one upon which SSA countries can build to address land ownership inequality and landlessness.”

Sound land policies are essential for facilitating private investment flows into agriculture and other land-based industries, including light manufacturing.

“Sound land policies are also essential for facilitating flows of private investment into agriculture and other land-based industries, including light manufacturing.”

Measurements of relationships between land distribution and growth were largely based on correlations, not causation.

“It should be noted that these measurements of relationships between land distribution and growth were largely based on correlations, and not causation.”

Sound land policies can facilitate agricultural productivity growth via secure land tenure, which enhances opportunities for investment.

“Sound land policies can facilitate growth in agricultural productivity via secure land tenure, which enhances opportunities for investment.”

Outside agriculture, land is a constraint for most manufacturing firms in Sub-Saharan Africa.

“Outside of the agriculture sector, land is a constraint for most manufacturing firms in SSA (Dinh et al. 2012).”

• cites Dinh et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Landownership can enhance access to credit only if it is documented and easily verifiable through a public land registry underpinned by a robust land information system.

“But landownership can enhance access to credit only if it is documented and easily verifiable through a public land registry underpinned by a robust LIS as described in the case study in chapter 6 (Deininger and Feder 2009).”

• cites Deininger and Feder 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Community institutions have an important role in maintenance and operation of decentralized land administration, even when central government leads, especially in initial identification of holdings and rights holders.

“Community institutions have an important role in the maintenance and operation of the decentralized system, even when the central government takes a strong lead, especially in the initial identification of holdings and rights holders.”

Redistribution of land from wage-operated large farms to family-run small farms would increase productivity.

“Thus a redistribution of land from wage-operated large farms to family-run small farms would lead to increases in productivity (Binswanger, Deininger, and Feder 1995).”

• cites Binswanger, Deininger, and Feder 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

South Africa's land reform program is missing two important aspects that would enable it to significantly impact beneficiaries' livelihoods.

“The case study on South Africa concludes that its land reform program is missing two important aspects that would enable it to make a significant impact on the livelihoods of beneficiaries.”

The legitimacy of traditional authorities is eroding rapidly due to pressure from foreign direct investment, demand for large-scale agriculture land, and associated corruption opportunities.

“But the legitimacy of traditional authorities is also eroding rapidly because of pressure from a recent surge in foreign direct investment, significant demand for land for largescale agriculture, and associated opportunities for corruption (Nolte 2012).”

• cites Nolte 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Productivity and incomes from family-operated small farms have a greater impact on food security and poverty reduction than wage-operated large farms.

“These research findings are relevant not only for indicating the relevant scale for the desired level of productivity; they are perhaps even more relevant to indicating the relevant scale to optimize achievement of food security and poverty reduction because productivity and incomes from family-operated small farms have a greater impact on the latter when compared with wage-operated large farms.”

Market-based land reforms alone do not work.

“Market-based land reforms alone do not work.The WSWB approach applied in South Africa since 1994 has not worked partly because owners of large holdings are unwilling to sell because they have high incentives to hold on to the land.”

In fully settled areas where agricultural production cannot increase through area expansion, enhancing productivity on existing farms is the only path to agricultural growth.

“In fully settled areas where agricultural production increases are no longer feasible through area expansion, enhancing agricultural productivity on existing farms is the only path to agricultural growth.”

Capping the maximum beneficiary grant that can be spent on land acquisition while allowing flexibility for resettlement and farm development is an effective mechanism to encourage beneficiaries to seek and negotiate lower priced land.

“Capping the maximum amount of the beneficiary grant that can be spent on land acquisition, but allowing flexibility to spend grant money on resettlement and land/farm development, is an effective mechanism to encourage beneficiaries to seek and negotiate for lower priced land.”

The Community-Based Rural Land Development Project (CBRLDP) has been the most significant investment intervention implemented in postcolonial Malawi to address highly unequal land ownership.

“The CBRLDP has been the most significant investment intervention implemented in postcolonial Malawi to address the highly unequal land ownership pattern.”

Postconflict countries often experience continuing land tensions grounded in issues predating the conflict and possibly contributing to it.

“Postconflict countries often experience continuing tensions over land that are grounded in issues that predate the original conflict and may have even contributed to it.”

Mounting population pressure has led to land fragmentation, especially in southern Malawi where pressure is most intense.

“Mounting population pressure has led to fragmentation, especially in the south where the pressure is the most intense.”

CBRLDP beneficiaries' land tenure security was enhanced.

“hence their land tenure security was enhanced.”

Improved governance of state-owned land has become a challenge in many Sub-Saharan African countries.

“Improved governance of state-owned land has therefore become a challenge in many SSA countries.”

A key disincentive to relocating is the need to preserve cultural and social ties, which are weakened when beneficiaries are relocated far away or across cultural and tribal lines.

“A key disincentive to relocating is the need to preserve cultural and social ties; these are weakened when beneficiaries are relocated far away and/or across cultural and tribal lines.”

Open and easy access to land registries is not the case for the vast majority of rural landholders and land market participants, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa.

“This is not the case for the vast majority of the rural landholders and land market participants especially in SSA (Deininger and Feder 2009).”

• cites Deininger and Feder 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The design features and meticulous implementation by the government led to the success of the CBRLDP.

“The design features and their meticulous implementation by the government led to the success of the project.”

Computerizing land registers and land administration systems is one way to address inefficiencies and other problems in land administration.

“A number of ways are available to address these inefficiencies and other problems in land administration, among them computerizing land registers and land administration systems.”

The voluntary community-based, market-assisted, willing seller-willing buyer approach was the most innovative aspect of the CBRLDP.

“This was the most innovative aspect of the CBRLDP.”

Actions during conflict can exacerbate land problems.

“Actions taken during the period of conflict can also exacerbate land problems.”

Access to land has a profound impact on food security and poverty reduction in Malawi.

“As such, access to land therefore has a profound impact on food security and poverty reduction.”

Community-driven land reform programs are possible.

“Community-driven land reform programs are possible.”

According to the World Bank (2012), 27 economies worldwide that computerized their registries in the past seven years cut average property transfer time in half, by about three months.

“For example, according to the World Bank (2012), 27 economies worldwide that computerized their registries in the past seven years cut the average time to transfer property in half, by about three months.”

• cites World Bank 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The use of Community Oversight Committees (COCs) in sending and receiving communities was a related innovative aspect of the CBRLDP.

“A related innovative aspect was the use of Community Oversight Committees (COCs) in both the sending and receiving communities.”

Based on land utilization studies from over a decade earlier, 2.6 million hectares of suitable agricultural land in rural Malawi remained uncultivated or underutilized, largely under leasehold.

“based on estimates from land utilization studies undertaken in Malawi more than a decade ago, 2.6 million hectares of suitable agricultural land remained uncultivated or underutilized in rural areas largely under leasehold (Government of Malawi 1997).”

• cites Government of Malawi 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The CBRLDP enhanced beneficiaries' ability to build sustainable livelihoods.

“enhancing their ability to build sustainable livelihoods.”

The willing seller-willing buyer approach may not always work.

“The willing seller-willing buyer (WSWB) approach may not always work.”

The government of Malawi used a voluntary community-based, market-assisted, willing seller-willing buyer approach for the CBRLDP.

“the government of Malawi used a voluntary community-based, market-assisted, and willing seller-willing buyer approach.”

Land redistribution has led to significant positive impacts on the livelihoods of beneficiaries in surrounding and vacated communities.

“Land redistribution has led to significant positive impacts on the livelihoods of beneficiaries in surrounding as well as vacated communities.”

Approximately 28 percent of Malawi's total land area has been lying idle or underutilized.

“this implies that approximately 28 percent of Malawi's total land area has been lying idle or underutilized.”

Land is the most constraining factor to agricultural and rural development in Malawi.

“Land is the most constraining factor to agricultural and rural development in Malawi.”

The legal basis for restitution in South Africa was created under the Restitution of Land Rights Act (Act 22 of 1994), which provided for restitution of historical land rights to people or communities dispossessed under racially based laws or practices after June 19, 1913.

“The legal basis for restitution was created under the Restitution of Land Rights Act (Act 22 of 1994), which provided for the restitution of historical land rights to people or communities dispossessed under racially based laws or practices after June 19, 1913.”

• cites Restitution of Land Rights Act (Act 22 of 1994)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The negotiated political compromise left intact much of the wealth and power of the white minority, including property rights.

“This political compromise left intact much of the wealth and power of the white minority, including that over property rights.”

The South African Constitution allows expropriation of property for a public purpose or in the public interest, subject to just and equitable compensation.

“The constitution allows for expropriation of property for a public purpose or in the public interest, subject to just and equitable compensation.”

• cites Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Many institutional challenges faced by the CBRLDP were due to the lack of a supportive policy and legislative environment.

“Many of the institutional challenges faced by the CBRLDP were due to the lack of a supportive policy and legislative environment.”

The Extension of Security of Tenure Act of 1997 (ESTA) was intended to protect people living on rural or periurban land with the owner's permission from illegal eviction, regardless of employment by the owner.

“The Extension of Security of Tenure Act of 1997 (ESTA) was intended to provide protection from illegal eviction for people who live on rural or periurban land with the permission of the owner, regardless of whether they are employed by the owner.”

Institutional capacity is critical for successful implementation of land reform projects such as the CBRLDP.

“Institutional capacity is critical for successful implementation of such projects.”

Rural land claims in South Africa, especially those involving forestry and mining, have proven particularly difficult and costly to settle.

“Rural land claims, many of which involve large communities claiming extensive properties from both private and public owners, have proven to be particularly difficult and costly to settle, specifically those involving the forestry and mining sectors.”

A 15-year search for tenure reform in South Africa's communal areas effectively came to a halt.

“A 15-year search for tenure reform in the country's communal areas effectively came to a halt.”

Almost all land in rural areas of South Africa's former homelands is legally owned by the state in trust for particular communities.

“Almost all land in the rural areas of the former homelands is legally owned by the state, in trust for particular communities.”

More than 13 million black Africans, mostly poverty stricken, remained crowded onto former homelands where land rights were generally unclear or contested.

“More than 13 million black Africans, the majority of them poverty stricken, remained crowded onto the former homelands, where rights to land were generally unclear or contested.”

South African agriculture is highly dualistic, with a developed commercial sector coexisting with many small farms on communal lands.

“South African agriculture is of a highly dualistic nature, whereby a developed commercial sector coexists with large numbers of small farms on communal lands (NDA 2005;OECD 2006).”

• cites NDA 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites OECD 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Since 1994, South African land reform policy has been approached under three main areas: restitution, tenure reform, and redistribution.

“Since 1994, land reform policy has been approached under three main areas:”

The most immediate explanation for the lack of subdivision is the requirement by DRDLR, provincial agriculture departments, and regional land claims commissioners that groups implement whole farm plans conforming to large-scale commercial farming norms as a condition of grants and settlement awards.

“The most immediate explanation for the lack of subdivision remains the requirement imposed by officials of the DRDLR, provincial departments of agriculture, and the regional land claims commissioners that, as a condition of grants and settlement awards, groups implement”

From the beginning, intended beneficiaries of South Africa's land reform have been defined in very broad, almost exclusively racial terms.

“From the beginning, the intended beneficiaries of South Africa's land reform program have been defined in very broad, and almost exclusively racial, terms.”

By 2011 beneficiary selection was decreasingly based on need and increasingly based on ability to use land productively, because of growing emphasis on effective use and limited evidence of effective provision for the poor.

“The growing emphasis on effective use of redistributed land over the past decade, and the limited evidence of any effective provision for the poor (as described above), means that by 2011, beneficiary selection was decreasingly on the basis of need and increasingly on the basis of ability to use land productively.”

A defining characteristic of South African land reform policy is that beneficiaries, however poor or numerous, must step into former white owners' shoes and manage the farm as a unitary commercially oriented enterprise, adapting to the big commercial farm paradigm rather than the reverse.

“Thus a defining characteristic of South African land reform policy is that beneficiaries-no matter how poor or how numerous-are required to step into the shoes of former white owners and continue to manage the farm as a unitary, commercially oriented enterprise; in other words, beneficiaries must adapt to the needs of the ideological paradigm of”

The most controversial and defining feature of South Africa's redistribution policy has been reliance on voluntary land purchase at market prices, known as willing seller-willing buyer.

“The defining feature of South Africa's redistribution policy to date-and the one that has been most controversial-has been the reliance on voluntary purchase of land at market prices, a policy widely referred to as”

Because redistribution has been based largely on beneficiaries' self-selection, effectively no targeting of applicants by income or agricultural experience occurs.

“Because the redistribution program has been based largely on beneficiaries' self-selection, effectively no targeting is seen of applicants in terms of income or agricultural experience.11”

Under the Proactive Land Acquisition Strategy the state buys land directly from owners without necessarily identifying intended beneficiaries in advance.

“Under this approach, the state buys land directly from owners, without necessarily identifying intended beneficiaries in advance.”

The evidence of the last 18 years suggests that the current approach-based on open-market land acquisition, minimal support to new farmers, and bureaucratic imposition of production models loosely based on existing commercial operators-is unlikely to transform the rural economy and lift people out of poverty.

“The evidence of the last 18 years suggests that the current approach-based on acquisition of land through the open market, minimal support to new farmers, and bureaucratic imposition of production models loosely based on existing commercial operators-is unlikely to transform the rural economy and lift people out of poverty.”

The prolonged underperformance of South Africa's land reform program points to a deeper problem: the absence of a comprehensive vision of the desired agrarian restructuring, the means to carry it out, and the intended beneficiaries.

“Although many of these problems can be traced back to specific policy design weaknesses or poor implementation, the prolonged underperformance of the land reform program suggests a more fundamental dilemma-starting with the lack of a comprehensive vision of the kind of agrarian restructuring that is desired, of the means by which it is to be carried out, and of the intended beneficiaries.”

In part because of extended conflict in Uganda in the 1980s, Uganda has had to rebuild its land administration system.

“In part because of the extended conflict in Uganda in the 1980s, Uganda has had to rebuild its land administration system.”

In short, the DRDLR does not have adequate funds to achieve all of its objectives.

“In short, the DRDLR does not have adequate funds to achieve all of its objectives.”

A key lesson of South Africa's experience with land reform is that the capacity of the state agencies involved-the national DRDLR, its branch the Commission on Restitution of Land Rights, and provincial departments of agriculture-has not been equal to the task.

“• Capacity strengthening to the bureaucracy: A key lesson of South Africa's experience with land reform is that capacity of the state agencies involved-the national DRDLR (formally the DLA) and its branch the Commission on Restitution of Land Rights-and the provincial departments of agriculture has not been equal to the task.”

Postsettlement support is perhaps the weakest aspect of the South African land reform program to date.

“• Postsettlement support is key to long-term success: Postsettlement support is perhaps the weakest aspect of the South African land reform program to date.”

Overall, a comprehensive restructuring of landholding such as envisaged under the 30 percent target remains highly unlikely.

“Overall, a comprehensive restructuring of landholding-such as envisaged under the 30 percent target-remains highly unlikely.”

Because most customary rights will not enter the formal land administration system for many years, the second initiative focuses on upgrading traditional land administration through customary land secretariats.

“Given that most customary rights will not come within the formal system of land administration for many years, the second initiative is focused on upgrading traditional land administration through creation of CLSs.”

The net result is a decentralization that is more deconcentration than devolution.

“The net result is a decentralization that is more deconcentration than devolution.”

Shared funding by national and local governments makes Uganda's financial sustainability hopeful.

“The operational framework for shared funding by national and local governments makes the picture regarding financial sustainability hopeful.”

It now appears that customary land secretariats are to become the bottom rung of the civil land administration system.

“It now seems, however, that the CLSs are to become the bottom rung of the civil land administration system.”

The government plans to transform customary land secretariats into the lowest level of civil land administration, as service units run by government for traditional authorities and their subjects.

“rather than developing the CLSs within the traditional land governance framework, the government plans to transform them into the lowest level of civil land administration, as service units run by the government for the use of those authorities and their subjects.”

The potential for local participation was increased by the presence of civil community governance structures closely linked into regional and national systems of territorial governance.

“The potential for such participation was increased by the presence of civil community governance structures closely linked into the regional and national systems of territorial governance.”

The one-stop shop concept appears not to be part of LAP-2 because its efforts focus more on building capacity in district registries.

“The one-stop shop concept seems not to figure in LAP-2, because its efforts focus more on building capacity in district registries.”

Funding issues around the new local land administration institutions are critical for sustainability.

“Regarding sustainability, the funding issues around these new local land administration institutions are critical.”

In Ethiopia, strong civil local authorities at the kebele and woreda levels have been given a considerable role in initial identification of right holders and their holdings.

“In Ethiopia the strong civil local authorities at the kebele and woreda levels have been given a very considerable role in the initial identification of right holders and their holdings.”

In their registration programs, Ethiopia and Tanzania formalize landholders as holders of statutory rights, not customary rights.

“In their registration programs, both countries formalize landholders as holders of statutory rights, not customary rights.”

Customary land predominates in Ghana, accounting for roughly 80 percent of all land including major urban areas.

“Customary land predominates, accounting for roughly 80 percent of all land in Ghana, including major urban areas.”

• cites Larbi 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In both Ethiopia and Tanzania, there is substantial local participation in implementation by community-level institutions.

“In both countries there is substantial local participation in implementation by community-level institutions.”

In Uganda and Ghana, decentralization involves reform and rehabilitation of weak land registration systems and their extension to more local levels.

“In both Uganda and Ghana, decentralization involves the reform and rehabilitation of weak land registration systems and their extension to more local levels.”

The survey capacity needed to maintain the registry system at the district level will be expensive to maintain.

“The survey capacity envisaged to maintain the registry system at the district level will be expensive to maintain.”

Without new funding, negotiations between districts and regions and the central government over funding for new local registries could be very contentious.

“Without new funding, these negotiations could be very contentious.”

Uganda's social sustainability is less clearly catered for.

“It is less clear that social sustainability is well catered for.”

In Uganda and Ghana, the roles of local traditional and civil authorities appear to be changing.

“In both Uganda and Ghana, the roles of local traditional and civil authorities seem to be changing.”

Social sustainability will be an issue in terms of whether landholders promptly register transfers and successions.

“As elsewhere, social sustainability will be an issue, in terms of whether transfers and successions will be registered promptly by landholders.”

As in Uganda, customary land secretariats would function as providers of land administration services to customary landholders, including traditional authorities, whose land governance roles are largely unchanged for the time being.

“As in Uganda, they would then function as providers of land administration services to customary landholders, including the traditional authorities, whose land governance roles, for the time being at least, are largely unchanged.”

Badly planned resettlements have been a continuing source of land contention.

“Badly planned resettlements have proved to be a source of continuing contention over land.”

Reliance is placed on persuasion during project design and implementation to convince the government of the need for policy and law reforms.

“Instead, reliance is placed on persuasion during design and implementation of the project to convince the government of the need for policy and law reforms.”

In cases of land degradation or persistent failure to produce, the government may forcibly confiscate land without resort to courts.

“In the case of land degradation or persistent failure to produce, the land may be forcibly confiscated by the government without resort to the courts.”

• cites Organic Law No. 08/2005 of 14/07/2005 Determining the Use and Management of Land in RwandaNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

If such reforms are not forthcoming, investments in land administration may not show economic rates of return competitive with other development programs.

“If such reforms are not forthcoming, investments in land administration may not show economic rates of return that are competitive with other development programs.”

Records created at great expense will go out of date soon unless land users are motivated to register transfers and successions.

“The records created at great expense will go out of date soon unless land users are motivated to come forward to register transfers and successions.”

Reliance on local and customary structures is common in postconflict Africa, including Mozambique.

“This is the case in the countries examined here and is common in postconflict contexts elsewhere in Africa, for example, in Mozambique (Tanner 2002).”

• cites Tanner 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Decentralization has the potential to enhance community-level land management where land management functions are decentralized to the same institutions.

“The decentralization does, however, have the potential to enhance community-level land management where land management functions are decentralized as well, to the same institutions.”

Those use rights have little potential as security for loans.

“Those rights have little potential as security for loans.”

Rwanda's civil war and genocide created major postconflict land administration challenges.

“The civil war and genocide in Rwanda created major challenges for postconflict land administration.”

There is an important link between decentralization and the choice of survey and other technologies.

“There is thus an important link between decentralization and the choice of survey and other technologies.”

The sustainability of decentralized land administration in the four countries will depend upon landholders' buy-in.

“The sustainability of the decentralized land administration in these four countries will also depend upon landholders' buy-in.”

This potentially undermines the traditional economic case for investment in land administration, which leans heavily on lowering risk in markets and facilitating the use of land to secure loans.

“This potentially undermines the traditional economic case for investment in land administration, which leans heavily on lowering risk in markets and facilitating use of land to secure loans.”

Sustainability will also depend on whether landholders experience greater tenure security.

“But it will also depend on whether landholders experience greater tenure security.”

More participatory land registration models with lower costs are available, such as the one recently carried out in Ethiopia.

“More highly participatory models are available with lower cost implications, such as the one recently carried out in Ethiopia (see chapter 3).”

• cites chapter 3Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In a situation of continuing ethnic tensions where customary tenure was implicated, relying on and upgrading customary systems to provide tenure security was problematic.

“In a situation of continuing ethnic tensions in which customary land tenure systems were implicated, reliance on and upgrading of those systems to provide tenure security, an option often favored, was problematic.”

Liberia faces a wide range of postconflict land management challenges.

“Liberia faces a wide range of land management challenges in its postconflict period.”

Several major land issues in Liberia hold potential to revive tensions from before and after the conflict.

“Third, several major land issues hold the potential to revive tensions, from both before and after the conflict.”

New policy elements in Rwanda are actively provoking tensions in a landscape where reducing them should be the major objective.

“new policy elements are actively provoking tensions in a landscape where reducing them should be the major objective.”

The balance between tenure security, local structures, and consolidation is still being negotiated, not through systematic open policy debate in Kigali but through local officials' decisions across the country.

“That balance is still being negotiated, although not through the systematic and open policy debate in Kigali one might wish to see, but rather throughout the country via decisions made by officials acting at the local level.”

Liberia has a second land registration system, at least on paper.

“Liberia also has a second land registration system, at least on paper.”

MLME is entrusted with land administration today through its DLSC.

“The Ministry of Lands, Mines and Energy (MLME) is entrusted with land administration today and carries out this task through its Department of Lands, Surveys and Cartography (DLSC).”

Rwanda's nationwide land registration approach was greatly facilitated by substantial foreign assistance and the country's relatively small size.

“the nationwide land registration approach taken by Rwanda to secure tenure postconflict was greatly facilitated by substantial foreign assistance and the country's relatively small size.”

Both Liberian land registration systems share a fundamental shortcoming: neither adequately provides for registration of customary rights, under which most rural land is held.

“It should be noted that the two systems share a fundamental shortcoming.Neither system makes adequate provision for registration of customary rights, under which most rural land in Liberia is held.”

Developing a computerized LIS remains largely unfinished business in SSA.

“Hence, developing a computerized LIS is still a largely unfinished business in SSA, and much can be learned from the SSA countries that have made progress in this area.”

More than 80 percent of SSA and South Asian countries still have paper-based land administration systems in deteriorated conditions.

“This progress in reforms notwithstanding, more than 80 percent of SSA and South Asian countries still have paper-based systems in deteriorated conditions (World Bank 2012).”

• cites World Bank 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The decision to create Liberia's Land Commission signaled to the donor community the need to address land issues.

“The decision to create the Land Commission was an important signal to the donor community of the need to address these issues.”

Resistance to LIS implementation is probable because it requires deep reengineering of procedures, decentralization, and organizational changes.

“Resistance is probable because LIS implementation requires a deep reengineering of many procedures and established practices, decentralization of decision making, and changes in organizational structures.”

According to World Bank 2012, SSA countries undertook 49 reforms to make it easier to register property between 2005 and 2011, compared with 6-34 reforms in other world regions.

“According to the World Bank (2012), SSA countries have been the most active in undertaking reforms: SSA countries undertook 49 reforms to make it easier to register property between 2005 and 2011, compared with a range of 6-34 reforms in other regions of the world.”

• cites World Bank (2012)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Uganda's LIS development and implementation minimized risks of failure because it was closely supervised by supervision consultants using an approach similar to engineering projects in construction.

“It also minimized risks of failure because the development and implementation of the LIS was closely supervised by supervision consultants using an approach similar to that used in engineering projects in the construction industry.”

Despite reform activity, SSA land administration systems remain inefficient.

“However, their land administration systems are still inefficient.”

• cites World Bank 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The single-contract, closely coordinated implementation of Uganda's LIS pilot reduced the risk of systems and subsystems failing to communicate.

“Unlike in Ghana where the different building blocks of LIS were implemented piecemeal, all five components of the LIS pilot in Uganda were implemented under one contract and were very closely coordinated, reducing the risk of systems and subsystems failing to communicate with each other.”

It is difficult, if not impossible, to measure economic loss due to poor management and inability to account for stock and condition of government land.

“In such circumstances, it is difficult, if not impossible, to measure the economic loss due to poor management and the inability to account for the stock and condition of government land.”

Inefficiencies such as physical and economic underutilization and insufficient monitoring, maintenance, and protection stem from the belief that government land and real property are free goods owned by taxpayers and not subject to private-sector economic rationalization.

“Consequently, inefficiencies in the form of physical and economic underutilization and insufficient monitoring, maintenance, and protection stem from the fundamental belief that land and real property held by government are free goods, owned by taxpayers, and not subject to the same economic rationalization that occurs in private ownership.”

According to Kaganova and McKellar (2006), only a few countries have computerized land information systems capable of generating a comprehensive inventory of government-owned land and buildings.

“According to Kaganova and McKellar (2006), only a few countries have computerized land information systems capable of generating a comprehensive inventory of government-owned land and buildings.”

• cites Kaganova and McKellar (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Previous guidelines in Uganda required disposal of land vested in ULC or municipal councils to be done under statutory leases.

“Regarding the disposal of land vested in ULC or municipal councils, previous guidelines in Uganda required this to be done under statutory leases.3”

The incomplete formalization of government land ownership indicated a need to review the functions and technical capabilities of agencies that identify, gazette, survey, and register government land.

“The incompleteness of the formalization of ownership of land claimed by government pointed to a need to review the functions and technical capabilities of the agencies directly responsible for identifying, gazetting, surveying, and registering government land.”

In Ghana, prior to consolidation of land administration agencies under the new Lands Commission in 2009, government land information was held by the old Lands Commission and three other public sector land agencies: Land Valuation Board, Survey Department, and Town and Country Planning Department.

“For example, in Ghana, prior to the consolidation of all land administration agencies under the new Lands Commission in 2009, government land information was held by the old Lands Commission and three other public sector land agencies, namely, the Land Valuation Board, the Survey Department, and the Town and Country Planning Department.”

The general paucity of information on government land and real property is a significant issue in SSA.

“The general paucity of information on government land and real property is a significant issue in SSA.”

• cites Kaganova and McKellar (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Uganda's Land Act requires Area Land Committee members to observe and approve all demarcations for cadastral surveys in their jurisdiction.

“The Land Act in Uganda, for example, stipulates that Area Land Committee members have to observe and approve all demarcations for cadastral surveys in their jurisdiction.”

• cites Land ActNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Although significant improvements in inventory data quality have occurred since then, government land and property inventory deficiencies are still the norm in most places.

“Although significant improvements in the quality of inventory data have occurred since then, government land and property inventory deficiencies are still the norm in most places (Kaganova and McKellar 2006).”

• cites Kaganova and McKellar 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ghana's Land Commission collaborates closely on land management decisions with the Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands, town and country planning, customary administration structures, and other public and private bodies.

“To fulfill this broader mission, Ghana's Land Commission collaborates closely on land management decisions with (1) the Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands, (2) the department responsible for town and country planning, (3) structures designed for the customary administration of stool, skin, familyor community-owned land, or any other land, and (4) other public agencies, government bodies,”

Lack of information creates multiple inefficiencies that may be attributed to large amounts of underutilized land held by government departments and agencies whose needs change faster than their ability to reuse or dispose of excess properties.

“Lack of information creates multiple inefficiencies that may be attributed to the large amount of underutilized land held by government departments and agencies whose needs change faster than their ability to reuse or dispose of excess properties.”

Even the most advanced industrialized countries, including New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, had inconsistent inventory records of government-owned land and buildings as late as 2002.

“Even the most advanced industrialized countries, including New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, had inconsistent inventory records of government-owned land and buildings as late as 2002.”

• cites Kaganova and McKellar 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Before the Ghana and Uganda efforts, the most comprehensive attempt to develop a comprehensive land inventory system in Sub-Saharan Africa was in Botswana.

“The most comprehensive attempt at developing a comprehensive land inventory system in SSA prior to the attempts in Ghana and Uganda was in Botswana (Government of Botswana 1995; UN-Habitat 2010).”

• cites Government of Botswana 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites UN-Habitat 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In 2009/10, 239,990 hectares were transferred or acquired in South Africa, against a target of 656,000 hectares.

“in 2009/10, 239,990 ha were transferred/acquired out of a target of 656,000 (DRDLR 2010, 28)”

• cites DRDLR 2010, 28Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ghana's inventory objectives show it is moving to distinguish land assets by ownership rather than by nature of appropriation.

“These objectives illustrate that Ghana is moving to distinguish its land assets not by the nature of the appropriation, but according to ownership.”