Direct medical costs of obesity in the United States and the most populous states
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: After a dramatic increase in prevalence over several decades, obesity has become a major public health crisis in the United States. Research to date has consistently demonstrated a correlation between obesity and higher medical costs for a variety of U.S. subpopulations and specific categories of care. However, by examining associations rather than causal effects, previous studies likely underestimated the effect of obesity on medical expenditures. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the causal effect of obesity on direct medical care costs at the national and state levels. METHODS: This study is a pooled cross-sectional analysis of retrospective data from the 2001-2016 Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys. Adults aged 20-65 years with a biological child living in the household were included in the study sample. Primary outcomes were individual-level medical expenditures due to obesity, overall, as well as separately by type of payer and category of medical care. Results were reported at the national level and separately for the 20 most populous states. The expenditure estimates were obtained from 2-part models of instrumental variables in which the respondent’s body mass index (BMI) was instrumented using the BMI of their biological child. RESULTS: Adults with obesity in the United States compared with those with normal weight experienced higher annual medical care costs by $2,505 or 100%, with costs increasing significantly with class of obesity, from 68.4% for class 1 to 233.6% for class 3. The effects of obesity raised costs in every category of care: inpatient, outpatient, and prescription drugs. Increases in medical expenditures due to obesity were higher for adults covered by public health insurance programs ($2,868) than for those having private health insurance ($2,058). In 2016, the aggregate medical cost due to obesity among adults in the United States was $260.6 billion. The increase in individual-level expenditures due to obesity varied considerably by state (e.g., 24.0% in Florida, 66.4% in New York, and 104.9% in Texas). CONCLUSIONS: The 2-part models of instrumental variables, which estimate the causal effects of obesity on direct medical costs, showed that the effect of obesity is greater than suggested by previous studies, which estimated only correlations. Much of the aggregate national cost of obesity—$260.6 billion—represents external costs, providing a rationale for interventions to prevent and reduce obesity. DISCLOSURES: Novo Nordisk financed the development of the study design, analysis, and interpretation of data, as well as writing support of the manuscript. Cawley, Biener, and Meyerhoefer received financial support from Novo Nordisk to conduct the research study on which this manuscript is based. Smolarz and Ramasamy are employees of Novo Nordisk. Ding and Zvenyach have no conflicts to declare. Our research has been presented as a poster at the 2020 Academy Health Annual Research Meeting (Virtual), July 28-August 6, 2020.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Child abuse: Adolescent records vs. adult recall
Femina, D. D., Yeager, C. A., & Lewis, D. O. (1990) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90033-p · Cited by 8,820 · see citing works
Genetics of Food Intake Self-Regulation in Childhood: Literature Review and Research Opportunities
Faith, M. S., Carnell, S., & Kral, T. V. E. (2013) · Human Heredity · doi:10.1159/000353879 · Cited by 7,628 · see citing works
Genetic studies of body mass index yield new insights for obesity biology
Study, T. L. C., Locke, A. E., The ADIPOGen Consortium, The AGEN-BMI Working Group, The CARDIOGRAMplusC4D Consortium, The CKDGen Consortium, The, G. L. G. C., The, I. C. B. P., The MAGIC Investigators, The MuTHER Consortium, et al. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14177 · Cited by 4,534 · see citing works
The Epidemiology of Obesity: A Big Picture
Hruby, A., & Hu, F. B. (2014) · PharmacoEconomics · doi:10.1007/s40273-014-0243-x · Cited by 3,006 · see citing works
Annual Medical Spending Attributable To Obesity: Payer-And Service-Specific Estimates
Finkelstein, E. A., Trogdon, J. G., Cohen, J. W., & Dietz, W. H. (2009) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.28.5.w822 · Cited by 2,956 · see citing works
Association analyses of 249,796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index
MAGIC, Speliotes, E. K., on behalf of Procardis Consortium, Willer, C. J., Berndt, S. I., Monda, K. L., Thorleifsson, G., Jackson, A. U., Allen, H. L., Lindgren, C. M., et al. (2010) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng.686 · Cited by 2,912 · see citing works
Trends in Obesity Among Adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014
Flegal, K. M., Kruszon-Moran, D., Carroll, M. D., Fryar, C. D., & Ogden, C. L. (2016) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2016.6458 · Cited by 2,803 · see citing works
Health and economic burden of the projected obesity trends in the USA and the UK
Wang, Y. C., McPherson, K., Marsh, T., Gortmaker, S. L., & Brown, M. (2011) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60814-3 · Cited by 2,694 · see citing works
(2020) · PubMed · Cited by 2,642 · see citing works
A Note on Robust Variance Estimation for Cluster‐Correlated Data
Williams, R. L. (2000) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00645.x · Cited by 2,501 · see citing works
Yengo, L., Sidorenko, J., Kemper, K. E., Zheng, Z., Wood, A. R., Weedon, M. N., Frayling, T. M., Hirschhorn, J. N., Yang, J., & Visscher, P. M. (2018) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddy271 · Cited by 2,305 · see citing works
Obesity and Kidney Disease: Hidden Consequences of the Epidemic
Kovesdy, C. P., Furth, S. L., & Zoccali, C. (2017) · American Journal of Nephrology · doi:10.1159/000458467 · Cited by 2,239 · see citing works
The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach
Cawley, J., & Meyerhoefer, C. D. (2011) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.10.003 · Cited by 1,465 · see citing works
Self-citationEstimating log models: to transform or not to transform?
Manning, W. G., & Mullahy, J. (2001) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/s0167-6296(01)00086-8 · Cited by 1,145 · see citing works
The nature of nurture: Effects of parental genotypes
Kong, A., Thorleifsson, G., Frigge, M. L., Vilhjalmsson, B. J., Young, A. I., Thorgeirsson, T. E., Benonisdottir, S., Oddsson, A., Halldorsson, B. V., Masson, G., et al. (2018) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aan6877 · Cited by 949 · see citing works
Beyond BMI: The value of more accurate measures of fatness and obesity in social science research
Burkhauser, R. V., & Cawley, J. (2007) · Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2007.05.005 · Cited by 849 · see citing works
Self-citationAdiposity and cancer at major anatomical sites: umbrella review of the literature
Kyrgiou, M., Kalliala, I., Markozannes, G., Gunter, M. J., Paraskevaidis, E., Gabra, H., Martin-Hirsch, P., & Tsilidis, K. K. (2017) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.j477 · Cited by 803 · see citing works
Variability in the Heritability of Body Mass Index: A Systematic Review and Meta-Regression
Elks, C. E., den Hoed, M., Zhao, J. H., Sharp, S. J., Wareham, N. J., Loos, R. J. F., & Ong, K. K. (2012) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2012.00029 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Direct medical cost of overweight and obesity in the USA: a quantitative systematic review
Tsai, A. G., Williamson, D. F., & Glick, H. A. (2010) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2009.00708.x · Cited by 479 · see citing works
Silventoinen, K., Rokholm, B., Kaprio, J. A., & Sørensen, T. I. A. (2009) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2009.177 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Kim, D. D., & Basu, A. (2016) · Value in Health · doi:10.1016/j.jval.2016.02.008 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Moderate and Severe Obesity Have Large Differences in Health Care Costs
Andreyeva, T., Sturm, R., & Ringel, J. S. (2004) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2004.243 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Maukonen, M., Männistö, S., & Tolonen, H. K. (2018) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1177/1403494818761971 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Cawley, J., Meyerhoefer, C., Biener, A., Hammer, M., & Wintfeld, N. (2015) · PharmacoEconomics · doi:10.1007/s40273-014-0230-2 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociation of Obesity With Mortality Over 24 Years of Weight History
Xu, H., Cupples, L. A., Stokes, A., & Liu, C. (2018) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4587 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
The High and Rising Costs of Obesity to the US Health Care System
Biener, A. I., Cawley, J., & Meyerhoefer, C. D. (2017) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-016-3968-8 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationHayes, S. L., Salzberg, C., McCarthy, D., Radley, D., Abrams, M. K., Shah, T., & Anderson, G. F. (2016) · PubMed · Cited by 138 · see citing works
The Impact of Obesity on Medical Care Costs and Labor Market Outcomes in the US
Biener, A. I., Cawley, J., & Meyerhoefer, C. D. (2017) · Clinical Chemistry · doi:10.1373/clinchem.2017.272450 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Self-citationState‐ and Payer‐Specific Estimates of Annual Medical Expenditures Attributable to Obesity
Trogdon, J. G., Finkelstein, E. A., Feagan, C. W., & Cohen, J. W. (2011) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2011.169 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Waalen, J. (2014) · Translational research · doi:10.1016/j.trsl.2014.05.010 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Li, Q., Blume, S. W., Huang, J., Hammer, M., & Ganz, M. L. (2015) · Journal of Medical Economics · doi:10.3111/13696998.2015.1067623 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Richmond, R. C., Timpson, N. J., Felix, J. F., Palmer, T., Gaillard, R., McMahon, G., Smith, G. D., Jaddoe, V. W. V., & Lawlor, D. A. (2017) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1002221 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Severe Obesity In Adults Cost State Medicaid Programs Nearly $8 Billion In 2013
Wang, Y. C., Pamplin, J. R., Long, M. W., Ward, Z. J., Gortmaker, S. L., & Andreyeva, T. (2015) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.0633 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
The medical care costs of obesity and severe obesity in youth: An instrumental variables approach
Biener, A. I., Cawley, J., & Meyerhoefer, C. D. (2020) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4007 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationModeling the clinical and economic implications of obesity using microsimulation
Su, W., Huang, J., Chen, F., Iacobucci, W., Mocarski, M., Dall, T. M., & Perreault, L. (2015) · Journal of Medical Economics · doi:10.3111/13696998.2015.1058805 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
The health care costs of childhood obesity in Australia: An instrumental variables approach
Black, N., Hughes, R., & Jones, A. M. (2018) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2018.07.003 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Predicting obesity rate and obesity-related healthcare costs using data analytics
Revels, S., Kumar, S., & Ben‐Assuli, O. (2017) · Health Policy and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.hlpt.2017.02.002 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Measuring obesity in the absence of a gold standard
O’Neill, D. (2015) · Economics & Human Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2015.02.002 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Association of obesity with healthcare utilization and costs in a Medicare population
Suehs, B. T., Kamble, P., Huang, J., Hammer, M., Bouchard, J. R., Costantino, M. E., & Renda, A. M. (2017) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1080/03007995.2017.1361915 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Excess Costs and Economic Burden of Obesity-Related Cancers in the United States
Hong, Y., Huo, J. S., Desai, R. A., Cardel, M. I., & Deshmukh, A. A. (2019) · Value in Health · doi:10.1016/j.jval.2019.07.004 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Association of obesity with healthcare resource utilization and costs in a commercial population
Kamble, P., Hayden, J., Collins, J. M., Harvey, R. A., Suehs, B. T., Renda, A. M., Hammer, M., Huang, J., & Bouchard, J. R. (2018) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1080/03007995.2018.1464435 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Kurz, C. F., & Laxy, M. (2020) · Medical decision making · doi:10.1177/0272989x20905809 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Judkins DR. Fay's method for variance estimation. J Off Stat. 1990;6(3):223-39.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2023 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association
Tsao, C. W., Aday, A. W., Almarzooq, Z. I., Anderson, C. A. M., Arora, P., Avery, C. L., Baker-Smith, C. M., Beaton, A. Z., Boehme, A. K., Buxton, A. E., et al. (2023) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001123 · Cited by 8,300 · see citing works
Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics—2022 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association
Tsao, C. W., Aday, A. W., Almarzooq, Z. I., Alonso, A., Beaton, A. Z., Bittencourt, M. S., Boehme, A. K., Buxton, A. E., Carson, A. P., Commodore-Mensah, Y., et al. (2022) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001052 · Cited by 5,987 · see citing works
Martin, S. S., Aday, A. W., Almarzooq, Z. I., Anderson, C. A. M., Arora, P., Avery, C. L., Baker-Smith, C. M., Barone Gibbs, B., Beaton, A. Z., Boehme, A. K., et al. (2024) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001209 · Cited by 2,800 · see citing works
Martin, S. S., Aday, A. W., Allen, N. B., Almarzooq, Z., Anderson, C. A. M., Arora, P. K., Avery, C. L., Baker-Smith, C. M., Bansal, N., Beaton, A., et al. (2025) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001303 · Cited by 1,206 · see citing works
Ng, M., Dai, X., Cogen, R. M., Abdelmasseh, M., Abdollahi, A., Abdullahi, A., Aboagye, R. G., Abukhadijah, H. J., Adeyeoluwa, T. E., Afolabi, A. A., et al. (2024) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(24)01548-4 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Palaniappan, L. P., Allen, N. B., Almarzooq, Z., Anderson, C. A. M., Arora, P. K., Avery, C. L., Baker-Smith, C. M., Bansal, N., Currie, M. E., Earlie, R. S., et al. (2026) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001412 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
A review of current guidelines for the treatment of obesity
(2022) · The American Journal of Managed Care · doi:10.37765/ajmc.2022.89292 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Boutari, C., DeMarsilis, A. J., & Mantzoros, C. S. (2023) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2023.110773 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
In the United States, Obesity Is So Prevalent Could It Be Described as a Pandemic?Preprint
Tzenios, N., Tazanios, M., & Chahine, M. A. (2022) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202212.0303.v1 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Gut Microbial-Derived Short Chain Fatty Acids: Impact on Adipose Tissue Physiology
May, K. S., & den Hartigh, L. J. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15020272 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Obesity Treatment With Bariatric Surgery vs GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
Barrett, T. S., Hafermann, J. O., Richards, S., LeJeune, K., & Eid, G. M. (2025) · JAMA Surgery · doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2025.3590 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Czaja-Stolc, S., Potrykus, M., Stankiewicz, M., Kaska, Ł., & Małgorzewicz, S. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14071457 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
2025 ACC Scientific Statement on the Management of Obesity in Adults With Heart Failure
Kittleson, M. M., Benjamin, E. J., Blumer, V., Harrington, J., Januzzi, J. L., McMurray, J. J. V., & Vest, A. R. (2025) · JACC · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2025.05.008 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Lifetime Health Effects and Cost-Effectiveness of Tirzepatide and Semaglutide in US Adults
Hwang, J. H., Laiteerapong, N., Huang, E. S., & Kim, D. D. (2025) · JAMA Health Forum · doi:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2024.5586 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Semaglutide vs endoscopic sleeve gastroplasty for weight loss
Haseeb, M., Chhatwal, J., Xiao, J., Jirapinyo, P., & Thompson, C. C. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.6221 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Papamargaritis, D., le Roux, C. W., Holst, J. J., & Davies, M. J. (2024) · Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1093/cvr/cvac176 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Wu, C., Wang, S.-M., Su, Y.-E., Hsieh, T.-T., Chen, P.-C., Cheng, Y., Tseng, T.-W., Chang, W.-S., Su, C.-S., Kuo, L.-C., et al. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1109/jtehm.2022.3207825 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Chen, Y., Ma, L., Han, Z., & Xiong, P. (2024) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15748 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Zhang, S., Wu, P., Tian, Y., Liu, B., Huang, L., Liu, Z., Lin, N., Xu, N., Ruan, Y., Zhang, Z., et al. (2021) · Microbiology Spectrum · doi:10.1128/spectrum.00223-21 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Pearson, S. D., Whaley, C. M., & Emond, S. K. (2025) · Journal of Comparative Effectiveness Research · doi:10.57264/cer-2025-0083 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Obesity also drives increased healthcare costs, with the direct costs of obesity now estimated at between $ 170 and $ 260 billion per year in the U.S [8 , 9] .”
Precision Nutrition to Improve Risk Factors of Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes
Antwi, J. (2023) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-023-00491-y · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Female obesity and infertility: outcomes and regulatory guidance.
Marinelli, S., Napoletano, G., Straccamore, M., & Basile, G. (2022) · Acta bio-medica dell'Ateneo parmense/Acta biomedica · doi:10.23750/abm.v93i4.13466 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
A cost comparison of GLP-1 receptor agonists and bariatric surgery: what is the break even point?
Docimo, S., Shah, J., Warren, G., Ganam, S., Sujka, J., & DuCoin, C. (2024) · Surgical Endoscopy · doi:10.1007/s00464-024-11191-1 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Gasoyan, H., Pfoh, E. R., Schulte, R., Sullivan, E., Le, P., & Rothberg, M. B. (2024) · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15473 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Pearson‐Stuttard, J., Banerji, T., Capucci, S., de Laguiche, E., Faurby, M. D., Haase, C. L., Matthiessen, K. S., Near, A. M., Tse, J. Y. M., Zhao, X., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-023-01376-4 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Potential Mechanisms of Precision Nutrition-Based Interventions for Managing Obesity
Mehta, N. H., Huey, S. L., Kuriyan, R., Peña‐Rosas, J. P., Finkelstein, J. L., Kashyap, S. R., & Mehta, S. (2024) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100186 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Laparoscopy-assisted versus balloon enteroscopy-assisted ERCP after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass
Tønnesen, C. J., Young, J., Glomsaker, T. B., Mala, T., Løberg, M., Bretthauer, M., Refsum, E., & Aabakken, L. (2020) · Endoscopy · doi:10.1055/a-1139-9313 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Cost-effectiveness analysis of five anti-obesity medications from a US payer's perspective
Gómez-Lumbreras, A., Tan, M. S., Zapata, L. V., Ilham, S., Earl, J. C., & Malone, D. C. (2023) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2023.03.012 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Dall, T. M., Sapra, T., Natale, Z., Livingston, T., & Chen, F. (2024) · Nutrition and Diabetes · doi:10.1038/s41387-024-00352-9 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Atlas, S. J., Kim, K., Nhan, E., Touchette, D. R., Moradi, A., Agboola, F., Rind, D. M., Beaudoin, F. L., & Pearson, S. D. (2023) · Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy · doi:10.18553/jmcp.2023.29.5.569 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Conversational Agents for Body Weight Management: Systematic Review
Noh, E., Won, J., Jo, S., Hahm, D., & Lee, H. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/42238 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Exploring the association between asthma and chronic comorbidities: impact on clinical outcomes
Listyoko, A. S., Okazaki, R., Harada, T., Inui, G., & Yamasaki, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1305638 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Linking adipose tissue eosinophils, IL-4, and leptin in human obesity and insulin resistance
Hernandez, J. D., Li, T., Ghannam, H., Rau, C. M., Masuda, M. Y., Madura, J. A., Jacobsen, E. A., & Filippis, E. D. (2024) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.170772 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Purnell, J. Q. (2023) · Gastroenterology Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2023.03.001 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Equity and Obesity Treatment — Expanding Medicaid-Covered Interventions
Stoops, H., & Dar, M. (2023) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmp2303268 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
How Weight Bias and Stigma Undermine Healthcare Access and Utilization
Pearl, R. L., & Sheynblyum, M. (2025) · Current Obesity Reports · doi:10.1007/s13679-025-00605-3 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Mini-review: Mitochondrial DNA methylation in type 2 diabetes and obesity
Rautenberg, E. K., Hamzaoui, Y., & Coletta, D. K. (2022) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.968268 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Lahooti, A., Westerveld, D., JOHNSON, K., Aneke-Nash, C. S., Baig, M. U., Akagbosu, C., Hanscom, M. H., Buckholz, A. P., Newberry, C. A., Herr, A., et al. (2024) · Gastrointestinal Endoscopy · doi:10.1016/j.gie.2024.12.017 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Boye, K. S., Ford, J. H., Thieu, V. T., Lage, M. J., & Terrell, K. A. (2023) · Diabetes Therapy · doi:10.1007/s13300-023-01384-7 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Goldstein, S. P., Zhang, F., Klasnja, P., Hoover, A., Wing, R. R., & Thomas, J. G. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/33568 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Total Ankle Arthroplasty: Does Obesity Matter?
Kim, B. I., Anastasio, A. T., Wixted, C. M., DeOrio, J. K., Nunley, J. A., Easley, M. E., & Adams, S. B. (2023) · Foot & Ankle International · doi:10.1177/10711007231171084 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Rosenfeld, R. M., Grega, M. L., Karlsen, M. C., Dabrh, A. M. A., Aurora, R. N., Bonnet, J. P., Donnell, L., Fitzpatrick, S. L., Frates, E. P., Joy, E. A., et al. (2025) · American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1177/15598276251325488 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Brooks, S. J., Smith, C., & Stamoulis, C. (2023) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/s41366-023-01303-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Evolving Approaches for Pharmacological Therapy of Obesity
Chao, A. M., Taylor, S. I., Moore, M., Amaro, A., & Wadden, T. A. (2024) · The Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology · doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-031124-101146 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Bunsawat, K., Grosicki, G. J., Jeong, S., & Robinson, A. T. (2022) · Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.pcad.2022.04.005 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Increasing Pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index and Pregnancy Outcomes in the United States
Akinyemi, O. A., Tanna, R., Adetokunbo, S., Omokhodion, O., Fasokun, M., Akingbule, A. S., Martins, C., Fakorede, M. O., Ogundipe, T., & Filani, O. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.28695 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Adipose Tissue Dysfunction in Obesity: Role of Mineralocorticoid Receptor
Parasiliti‐Caprino, M., Bollati, M., Merlo, F. D., Ghigo, E., Maccario, M., & Bo, S. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14224735 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Liu, Z., & Zheng, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.3389/fcvm.2024.1361088 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Estimated Reduction in Health Care Spending Associated With Weight Loss in Adults
Thorpe, K. E., & Joski, P. J. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.49200 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Ng, C. D., Divino, V. M., Wang, J., Toliver, J. C., & Buss, M. (2025) · Advances in Therapy · doi:10.1007/s12325-025-03340-2 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lewis, N., Abdulkadir, A. S., Kandel, S., Rosby, R., & Hossain, E. (2024) · Physiologia · doi:10.3390/physiologia4040035 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Ban, O., Lee, M., Bang, W. Y., Nam, E. H., Jeon, H. J., Shin, M., Yang, J., & Jung, Y. H. (2022) · Molecular Nutrition & Food Research · doi:10.1002/mnfr.202200385 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Mapping Obesity Trends in Saudi Arabia: A Four-Year Description Study
Althumiri, N. A., BinDhim, N. F., Al-Rayes, S., & Alumran, A. K. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12202092 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Liver and obesity: a narrative review
Lonardo, A., & Weiskirchen, R. (2025) · Exploration of Medicine · doi:10.37349/emed.2025.1001334 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Can Fasting Curb the Metabolic Syndrome Epidemic?
Vrdoljak, J., Kumrić, M., Vilović, M., Martinović, D., Rogošić, V., Borovac, J. A., Kurir, T. T., & Božić, J. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14030456 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Tish, S., & Corcelles, R. (2024) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13071954 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Negi, A., Asokkumar, R., Ravi, R., López-Nava, G., & Bautista-Castaño, I. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14163450 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Obesity in the Pediatric Population of the National (Nationwide) Inpatient Sample (NIS), USA
Okobi, O. E., Izundu, I. C., Evbayekha, E. O., Egberuare, E. O., Segun, E. O., Abdulgaffar, R. A., Oyelade, B. O., Onyema, J. J., Peresuodei, T. S., & Abu-Undiyaundeye, S. U. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.33111 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Facing Challenges for Reducing Weight Stigma in Public Health Policy and Practice
Puhl, R. M. (2025) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060722-024519 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Hlavin, C. A., Sebastiani, R. S., Scherer, R., Kenkre, T. S., Bernardi, K., Reed, D. A., Ahmed, B. H., & Courcoulas, A. P. (2023) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11695-023-06761-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Puttarajappa, C. M., Smith, K. J., Ahmed, B. H., Bernardi, K., Lavenburg, L.-M. U., Hoffman, W., & Molinari, M. (2024) · American Journal of Transplantation · doi:10.1016/j.ajt.2024.07.024 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Liu, L., Cui, J., Neidecker, M. V., & Nahata, M. C. (2025) · Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy · doi:10.18553/jmcp.2025.31.5.441 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Rubinić, I., Kurtov, M., & Likić, R. (2024) · Pharmacology Research & Perspectives · doi:10.1002/prp2.1243 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Attitudes, Perceptions, and Practices Among Endocrinologists Managing Obesity
Agarwal, M., & Nadolsky, K. Z. (2021) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.1016/j.eprac.2021.10.006 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The Burden of Obesity in Saudi Arabia: A Real-World Cost-of-Illness Study
Nagi, M. A., Almalki, Z. S., Thavorncharoensap, M., Sangroongruangsri, S., Turongkaravee, S., Chaikledkaew, U., Alqahtani, A., AlSharif, L. S., Alsubaihi, I. A., Alzarea, A. I., et al. (2025) · ClinicoEconomics and Outcomes Research · doi:10.2147/ceor.s504462 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Matuszak, O., Banach, W., Pogorzały, B., Muszyński, J., Mengesha, S. H., Bogdański, P., & Skrypnik, D. (2023) · Current Problems in Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2023.102062 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Ghusn, W., Loftus, E. V., & Johnson, A. M. (2024) · Current Opinion in Gastroenterology · doi:10.1097/mog.0000000000001025 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Katzman, J. L., Haider, M. A., Cardillo, C., Rozell, J. C., Schwarzkopf, R. M., & Lajam, C. M. (2025) · The Journal of Arthroplasty · doi:10.1016/j.arth.2025.02.042 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Simancas‐Racines, D., Reytor-González, C., Parise-Vasco, J. M., Angamarca-Iguago, J., Garcia-Velasquez, E., Macías, A. C. C., Frías-Toral, E., & Schiavo, L. (2025) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17091533 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Betensky, D. J., Smith, K. C., Katz, J. N., Yang, C. J., Hunter, D. J., Collins, J. E., Feldman, C. H., Messier, S. P., Kim, J., Selzer, F., et al. (2025) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/annals-24-03609 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Healthy Sleep Every Day Keeps the Doctor Away
Feingold, C. L., & Smiley, A. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710740 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Sarzani, R., Landolfo, M., Pentima, C. D., Ortensi, B., Falcioni, P., Sabbatini, L., Massacesi, A., Rampino, I., Spannella, F., & Giulietti, F. (2024) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2024.1365183 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
McKenzie, A. L., & Athinarayanan, S. J. (2024) · Diabetes Therapy · doi:10.1007/s13300-024-01547-0 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Ezendu, K., Pohl, G. M., Lee, C. J., Wang, H., Li, X., & Dunn, J. P. (2025) · Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy · doi:10.18553/jmcp.2025.31.2.179 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Does Information Disclosure Improve Consumer Knowledge?
Cawley, J., Susskind, A. M., & Willage, B. (2021) · American Journal of Health Economics · doi:10.1086/714987 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationMigration-Related Weight Changes among African Immigrants in the United States
Byiringiro, S., Koirala, B., Ajibewa, T. A., Broni, E. K., Liu, X., Adeleye, K. K., Turkson‐Ocran, R., Baptiste, D., Ogungbe, O., Himmelfarb, C. D., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192315501 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Plasma LEAP-2 Following a Low-Calorie Diet with or without Interval Exercise in Women with Obesity
Ragland, T. J., & Malin, S. K. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15030655 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Sharaiha, R. Z., Wilson, E. B., Zundel, N., Ujiki, M. B., & Dayyeh, B. K. A. (2024) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11695-024-07324-z · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Zhan, S., Zhou, X. J., & Fu, J. (2025) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom15050633 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Wronski, M., Plessow, F., Kerem, L., Asanza, E., O’Donoghue, M. L., Stanford, F. C., Bredella, M. A., Torriani, M., Soukas, A. A., Kheterpal, A., et al. (2022) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2022.106909 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Income Inequality, Race/Ethnicity, and Obesity in U.S. Men 20 Years and Older: 1999 to 2016
Zare, H., Gilmore, D. R., Meyerson, N. S., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883221123852 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Suminski, R. R., Jr., Leonard, T., Obrusníková, I., & Kelly, K. (2022) · American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1177/15598276221114047 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Counting the lifetime cost of obesity: Analysis based on national England data
Heald, A. H., Stedman, M., Fryer, A. A., Davies, M. B., Rutter, M. K., Gibson, M., & Whyte, M. (2024) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15447 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Achara, K. E., Iyayi, I. R., Erinne, O. C., Odutola, O. D., Ogbebor, U. P., Utulor, S., Abiodun, R. F., Perera, G. S., Okoh, P., & Okobi, O. E. (2024) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.68376 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Fernandes, G. J., Choi, A., Schauer, J. M., Pfammatter, A. F., Spring, B. J., Darwiche, A. Y., & Alshurafa, N. I. (2023) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/42047 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Shifting paradigms: Reframing coverage of antiobesity medications for plan sponsors
Green, L., & Taddei-Allen, P. (2023) · Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy · doi:10.18553/jmcp.2023.29.5.564 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Macklin, M., Thompson, C., Kawano-Dourado, L. B., Ventura, I. B., Weschenfelder, C., Trostchansky, A., Marcadenti, A., & Tighe, R. M. (2023) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells12182206 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kim, Y. (2025) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-025-22133-4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Unveiling the cost-effectiveness of bariatric surgery: insights from a matched cohort study
Lloyd, S. J.-A., Wall-Wieler, E., Liu, Y., Zheng, F., & LaMasters, T. (2025) · Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.soard.2025.04.004 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Boakye, E., Grandhi, G. R., Dardari, Z., Adhikari, R., Soroosh, G., Jha, K. K., Dzaye, O. D. A., Tasdighi, E., Erhabor, J., Kumar, S. J., et al. (2023) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.23832 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Anker, S. D., Ji, L., Kindel, T., Coats, A. J. S., Ojji, D., Puente-Barragán, A., Rossing, P. R., Zieroth, S. R., Ahmad, S., Usman, S., et al. (2025) · Global Cardiology · doi:10.4081/cardio.2025.86 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Cho, E., Kim, J. Y., Cho, B., Lee, J. S., Yoon, Y. C., Shin, Y. C., Kim, H., Gil, S., & Kim, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1148512 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Mitchell, E. S., Fabry, A., Ho, A. S., May, C. N., Baldwin, M. W., Blanco, P., Smith, K., Michaelides, A. P., Shokoohi, M., West, M. E. D., et al. (2023) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/47473 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Healthcare costs attributable to abnormal weight in China: evidence based on a longitudinal study
Zhao, S., Xu, X., You, H., Ge, J., & Wu, Q.-F. (2023) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-16855-6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Hunter, T. M., Chinthammit, C., Ward, J. M., Cappell, K. A., Sedgley, R., Bonafede, M., Liao, B., & Hankosky, E. R. (2025) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.16330 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
da Silva, C. P. V., Shettigar, V., Baer, L. A., Abay, E., Pinckard, K. M., Vinales, J., Sturgill, S. L., Vidal, P., Ziolo, M. T., & Stanford, K. I. (2022) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2022.121181 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The Relative Value of Anti-Obesity Medications Compared to Similar Therapies
Kim, N., Estrada, J. J., Chow, I., Ruseva, A., Ramasamy, A., Burudpakdee, C., & Blanchette, C. M. (2023) · ClinicoEconomics and Outcomes Research · doi:10.2147/ceor.s392276 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationKan, H., Swindle, J. P., Bae, J., Dunn, J. P., Buysman, E. K., Gronroos, N. N., Bengtson, L., Chinthammit, C., Ford, J., & Ahmad, N. (2023) · Obesity Pillars · doi:10.1016/j.obpill.2023.100072 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lee, H. Y., Ko, S.-H., Park, S., Kim, K., Kim, S.-Y., Cho, I.-J., Cho, E. J., Kim, H. C., Park, J.-H., Ryu, S. K., et al. (2024) · Clinical Hypertension · doi:10.1186/s40885-024-00279-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Spanggaard, M., Bøgelund, M., Dirksen, C., Jørgensen, N. B., Madsbad, S., Panton, U. H., Pedersen, M. H., Reitzel, S. B., & Johansen, P. (2022) · Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research · doi:10.1080/14737167.2022.2053676 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cawley, J., Biener, A., Meyerhoefer, C., Ding, Y., Zvenyach, T., Smolarz, B. G., & Ramasamy, A.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Lafayette College (US)
- Lehigh University (US)
- Bluebird Bio (United States) (US)
- Independent Advisor, Healthcare and Obesity Public Policy, Madison, WI.
- Novo Nordisk, Plainsboro, NJ.
- Venue
- Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy
- Publisher
- Academy of Managed Care Pharmacy
- Published
- 2021-03
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 354-366
- ISSN
- 2376-0540 (ISSN-L)
- 2376-1032
- PMC
- PMC10394178
- OpenAlex
- W3125193263
- Cited by
- 400
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 103 · 2024: 101 · 2023: 91 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 54.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Managed Care & Specialty Pharmacy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Obesity and Health Practices
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Healthcare Policy and Management
- Keywords
- obesity, direct medical costs, health care expenditure, body mass index, public health insurance, private health insurance, inpatient care, outpatient care, prescription drug costs, state-level variation, obesity prevention, United States, Medical Expenditure Panel Survey
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Florida, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, New York, Obesity, Population Density, Texas, United States, Health Care Costs, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
