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PreprintCited by 33Philosophy and Theoretical ScienceQuantum Mechanics and ApplicationsParanormal Experiences and Beliefs

Testing the Conjecture That Quantum Processes Create Conscious Experience

Open access
Neven, Hartmut, Read, Peter, Kosik, Kenneth S., Van der Molen, Tjitse, Bouwmeester, Dirk, Bodnia, Eve, Turin, Luca, Koch, Christof·2024·Entropy
DOI 10.20944/preprints202402.1751.v1PMC PMC11203236
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Abstract

The question of what generates conscious experience has mesmerized thinkers since the dawn of humanity, yet its origins remain a mystery. The topic of consciousness has gained traction in recent years, thanks to the development of large language models that now arguably pass the Turing test, an operational test for intelligence. However, intelligence and consciousness are not related in obvious ways, as anyone who suffers from a bad toothache can attest - pain generates intense feelings and absorbs all our conscious awareness yet nothing particularly intelligent is going on. Still, in the hard sciences, this topic is frequently met with skepticism because to date no protocol to measure the content or intensity of conscious experiences in an observer-independent manner has been agreed upon. Here we present a novel proposal: Conscious experience arises whenever a quantum mechanical superposition forms. Our proposal has several implications: First, it suggests that the structure of the superposition determines the qualia of the experience. Second, quantum entanglement naturally solves the binding problem, ensuring the unity of phenomenal experience. Finally, a moment of agency may coincide with the formation of a superposition state. We outline a research program to experimentally test our conjecture via a sequence of quantum biology experiments. Applying these ideas opens up the possibility of expanding human experience through brain-quantum computer interfaces.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper proposes that conscious experience arises whenever a quantum mechanical superposition forms, rather than when it collapses, and outlines a quantum-biology research program to test this conjecture. It is a conceptual proposal with planned experiments, not a report of completed empirical tests.

Key findings

  • The authors conjecture that a conscious moment occurs when a superposition forms, not when it collapses; this modification avoids faster-than-light communication problems in Penrose’s collapse-based proposal and is rooted in Everett’s many-worlds formulation.
  • They propose that the structure of the superposition determines qualia, that entanglement naturally solves the binding problem, and that the number of entangled degrees of freedom bounds the amount and content of consciousness; a moment of agency may coincide with superposition formation.
  • They cite Li et al. (2018), in which 80 mice (20 per isotope) were exposed to four xenon isotopes: the half-integer nuclear-spin isotopes Xe129 and Xe131 had about 30% less anesthetic potency than the zero-spin isotopes Xe132 and Xe134, suggesting nuclear spins may mediate effects on consciousness.
  • They outline an “expansion protocol” using a brain–quantum computer interface and propose preparatory entanglement-mediation experiments through biological substrates, plus xenon-isotope replication in brain organoids and Drosophila melanogaster (about 100,000 neurons).

Methods

  • Conceptual and theoretical proposal; no new experimental data are reported. The authors outline a sequence of quantum-biology experiments, including a preparatory test that coherently couples two well-characterized qubits Q1 and Q2 to a biological substrate B without direct Q1–Q2 link, to see whether entanglement can be mediated via B.
  • Planned xenon experiments would replicate Li et al. in brain organoids with high-bandwidth electrical or optical arrays and in Drosophila, measuring the pressure at which xenon isotopes cause immobility, with spin resonance used to monitor spin signals.
  • The proposed expansion protocol would coherently couple a subject’s brain state |ψMe⟩ with quantum-computer qubits |ψChip⟩, forming an N×M-dimensional Hilbert space |ψCyborg⟩, then correlate reported qualia or emotional valence with measured qubit states.

Limitations

  • The paper states that no observer-independent protocol to measure the content or intensity of conscious experience has been agreed upon; epistemological solipsism means one cannot conclusively demonstrate that anyone except oneself is conscious, and without an accepted theory or experimental test, claims remain vacuous.
  • The authors state that brain–quantum computer coupling is technologically very challenging and may require invasive technologies; current brain–computer interfaces are not designed for coherent coupling, and it remains unspecified what constitutes the neurobiological qubits. They also note Li et al. provided little information on xenon’s mode of action and that reproducibility concerns motivate replication.
  • Evident from the text: the central conjecture is not experimentally tested here; the described experiments are proposed or planned, not completed. The paper also acknowledges that differential mass effects have not been ruled out in other isotope proposals, though it argues xenon’s heavier mass makes mass effects less likely to explain the cited differences.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.20944/preprints202402.1751.v1

Cites

34 of 34 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 20 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Interpretationreasoning

    A quantum system may be composed of many experiencing minds, albeit often very simple ones.

    “Hence, we posit that a quantum system may be composed of many experiencing minds, albeit often very simple ones [6,7].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Lockwood M. ‘ManyMinds’ Interpretations of Quantum Mechanics Br. J. Philos. Sci. 1996 47 159 188 10.1093/bjps/47.2.159

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [7] Liberman E.A. Minina S.V. Shklovski-Kordi N.E. Biological information and laws of nature Biosystems 1998 46 103 106 10.1016/S0303-2647(97)00086-5 9648680

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationcitation

    The number of degrees of freedom involved in entanglement bounds the amount and content of consciousness.

    “The number of degrees of freedom involved in the entanglement bound the amount and content of consciousness [16].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [16] Arkhipov A. Non-Separability of Physical Systems as a Foundation of Consciousness Entropy 2022 24 1539 10.3390/e24111539 36359629 PMC9689906

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Interpretationreasoning

    If a classical state evolves into a quantum superposition through a unitary transformation, the experiencing system will evolve along multiple paths simultaneously.

    “If a classical state evolves into a quantum superposition through a unitary transformation, as prescribed by the Schrödinger equation, then the experiencing system will evolve along multiple paths simultaneously.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Conscious experience arises whenever a quantum mechanical superposition forms.

    “Here, we present a novel proposal: Conscious experience arises whenever a quantum mechanical superposition forms.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. A Conjecture Inspired by Roger Penrose · plain
      “Second, we propose that a conscious moment occurs whenever a superposition forms, not when it collapses.”
    • Also stated in: § 1. A Conjecture Inspired by Roger Penrose · plain
      “To avoid this violation, we posit that a moment of consciousness arises not when a superposition collapses, but when it forms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Premisereasoning

    Quantum superposition for the entire system (the system of interest plus the environment) still persists after environment-induced decoherence.

    “Quantum superposition for the entire system (the system of interest plus the environment) still persists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 20
  • May combine two claims. 7

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The expansion protocol sidesteps the challenge that has plagued consciousness research and would allow testing whether the creation of a superposition generates a conscious experience.

    “It sidesteps the challenge that has plagued consciousness research. In particular, it would allow us to test whether the creation of a superposition generates a conscious experience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A moment of agency may coincide with the formation of a superposition state.

    “Finally, a moment of agency may coincide with the formation of a superposition state.”
    • Also stated in: § 4. Formation of Quantum Superposition May Facilitate Agency · hedged
      “The formation of a superposition state may not only create a conscious experience, but may go hand-in-hand with a moment of agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisenone given

    Conscious experience is not a traditional experimental observable with an associated objective, subject-independent measurement protocol.

    “A key challenge when attempting to construct a scientific theory of consciousness is that conscious experience is not a traditional experimental observable with an associated objective, that is, subject-independent measurement protocol.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Epistemological solipsism, the position that I can only be certain of my own consciousness, is logically consistent.

    “That is, epistemological solipsism, the position that I can only be certain of my own consciousness, is logically consistent [18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] Wikipedia Solipsism 2024 Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solipsism (accessed on 10 January 2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Whether anything else is conscious has to be inferred as the most likely explanation of all available information.

    “Whether anything else is conscious, such as you, has to be inferred as the most likely explanation of all available information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In standard quantum mechanics, entanglement cannot be employed to achieve faster-than-light communication.

    “Recall that in standard quantum mechanics, it is well established that entanglement cannot be employed to achieve faster-than-light communication.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Gravitational influences causing collapse have not been observed in a lab, and initial experiments looking for such an effect have come up short.

    “Whether gravitational influences cause a collapse is testable, but so far, it has not been observed in a lab, and initial experiments looking for such an effect have come up short [3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Donadi S. Piscicchia K. Curceanu C. Diósi L. Laubenstein M. Bassi A. Underground test of gravity-related wave function collapse Nat. Phys. 2021 17 74 78 10.1038/s41567-020-1008-4

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Today's technologies to establish brain-computer interfaces are not designed to support a coherent coupling between structures in a brain and a quantum computer.

    “Today’s technologies to establish brain– computer interfaces are not designed to support a coherent coupling (one that allows the spreading of entanglement) between structures in a brain and a quantum computer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A system only ever experiences classical, definite states.

    “Our key tenet is that a system only ever experiences classical, definite states.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    If entanglement can be mediated between Q1 and Q2 via a biological substrate B, then B requires a quantum mechanical description.

    “If we then find that it is possible to mediate entanglement between Q1 and Q2 via the system B, then we can conclude that B requires a quantum mechanical description [25,26].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25] Marletto C. Vedral V. Gravitationally induced entanglement between two massive particles is sufficient evidence of quantum effects in gravity Phys. Rev. Lett. 2017 119 240402 10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.240402 29286752

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Kerskens C.M. Pérez D.L. Experimental indications of non-classical brain functions J. Phys. Commun. 2022 6 105001 10.1088/2399-6528/ac94be

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A superposition forming in a higher-dimensional state space would be experienced by the subject as a richer experience compared to a superposition state forming in the lower-dimensional Hilbert space of the isolated brain.

    “We conjecture that a superposition forming in this higher dimensional state space would be experienced by the subject as a richer experience as compared to a superposition state forming in the lower N-dimensional Hilbert space describing the isolated brain of the subject.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    To the degree the system being observed is dissimilar to ourselves, the protocol of inferring consciousness breaks down.

    “But to the degree the system we are observing is dissimilar to ourselves, this protocol breaks down, hence the unresolved debate to what degree another person, a fish, a tree, a rock or a computer executing an LLM may be conscious.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    I cannot conclusively demonstrate that anyone except myself is conscious.

    “It follows that I cannot conclusively demonstrate that anyone except myself is conscious.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Consciousness becomes an observable in the limit case that the observing system and the observed systems are exact copies of one another.

    “As some of us have argued in a recent article [20], consciousness does become an observable in the limit case that the observing system and the observed systems are exact copies of one another.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Neven H. Read P. Rees T. Do Robots powered by a Quantum Processor have the Freedom to swerve? arXiv 2021 2104.11591

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The electromagnetic field emanating from a nuclear spin is rather weak compared to the electromagnetic field generated by an electron.

    “The electromagnetic field emanating from a nuclear spin is rather weak compared to the electromagnetic field generated by an electron.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    A possible way to explain the correlation between pleasant sensations and behaviors conducive to an organism's well-being is to postulate the existence of agency.

    “A possible way to explain the correlation between pleasant sensations and behaviors conducive to an organism’s well-being is to postulate the existence of agency [12,45].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [12] Tononi G. Boly M. Massimini M. Koch C. Integrated information theory: From consciousness to its physical substrate Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2016 17 450 461 10.1038/nrn.2016.44 27225071

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [45] Goff P. Why? The Purpose of the Universe Oxford University Press New York, NY, USA 2023

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Behaviors conducive to well-being/homeostasis tend to be correlated with feelings of pleasure, while actions that threaten homeostasis feel unpleasant (the homeostatic correlation).

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Selecting a single classical configuration from the multitudes contained in a superposition implements conscious experience of that classical configuration and gives the system agency to select it.

    “In this view, selecting a single classical configuration from the multitudes contained in a superposition implements conscious experience (of that classical configuration) and gives the system agency to select it.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In brain tissue, there are plenty of overlapping electromagnetic fields generated by moving charges, electron, nuclear or orbital spins, or by external sources.

    “In brain tissue, there are plenty of overlapping electromagnetic fields generated by moving charges, electron, nuclear or orbital spins, or by external sources, such as the earth magnetic field or cell phone towers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Xenon is heavier than the isotopes used in the cited experiments, making it less likely that mass effects can account for the observed differences among isotopes.

    “One reason xenon is attractive is that it is heavier than the isotopes used in the experiments cited, making it less likely that mass effects can account for the observed differences among isotopes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If an organism possesses agency to freely choose a state, it would choose emotionally rewarding over unrewarding ones.

    “If an organism possesses the agency to freely choose a state, then presumably, it would choose emotionally rewarding over unrewarding ones.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Today's AI systems running on semiconducting electronics are confined by the laws of classical information theory, and their computations can be abstracted by the operations of a probabilistic Turing machine.

    “Vice versa, today’s AI systems running on semiconducting electronics are confined by the laws of classical information theory. Their computations can be abstracted by the operations of a probabilistic Turing machine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Quantum operations, such as creating or collapsing superposition states, may give a system the freedom to exert agency and express a preference.

    “Quantum operations, such as creating or collapsing superposition states, may give a system (experiencing a single classical reality at a given time) the freedom to exert agency and to express a preference.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Xenon does not fully anesthetize fruit flies at ambient pressure.

    “Xenon does not fully anesthetize fruit flies at ambient pressure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Turing machines have become intelligent but may never become conscious; a quantum Turing machine is required for consciousness.

    “Stated more pointedly, Turing machines have become intelligent but may never become conscious. For the latter, a quantum Turing machine is required.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
24 of 24

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Behaviors conducive to well-being/homeostasis tend to be correlated with feelings of pleasure, while actions that threaten homeostasis feel unpleasant (the homeostatic correlation).

    “Our argument rests on the following observation: behaviors conducive to our well being, i.e., conducive to maintaining homeostasis, tend to be correlated with feelings of pleasure, while actions that threaten homeostasis feel unpleasant. We call this the ‘homeostatic correlation’.”
1 of 1

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Recent proposals-for example, using isotope-dependent anaesthetic effects [16] to probe quantum-sensitive biological mechanisms-offer a testable framework but remain at the conceptual stage.

    “Recent proposals—for example, using isotope-dependent anaesthetic effects [16] to probe quantum-sensitive biological mechanisms—offer a testable framework but remain at the conceptual stage.”

    From Quantum-Inspired and Non-Classical Approaches to Consciousness: Models, Evidence and Constraints (2026) · cites this paper as [16]

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

4 of the 38 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. [1]Penrose R. The Emperor’s New Mind Oxford University Press New York, NY, USA 1989
  2. [11]Zanardi P. Tomka M. Venuti L.C. Towards quantum integrated information theory arXiv 2018 1806.01421
  3. [20]Neven H. Read P. Rees T. Do Robots powered by a Quantum Processor have the Freedom to swerve? arXiv 2021 2104.11591
  4. [24]Hameroff S. The quantum origin of life: How the brain evolved to feel good On Human Nature Academic Press Cambridge, MA, USA 2017 333 353
  5. [31]Gaitanidis A. Sotgiu A. Turin L. Spontaneous radiofrequency emission from electron spins within Drosophila: A novel biological signal Current Research in Neuroadaptive Technology Academic Press Cambridge, MA, USA 2022 235 253

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Related

Authors
Neven, H., Read, P., Kosik, K. S., Van der Molen, T., Bouwmeester, D., Bodnia, E., Turin, L., & Koch, C.
Affiliations
  • Google (United States) (US)
  • University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
  • Leiden University (NL)
  • University of Buckingham (GB)
Corresponding author
Neven, Hartmut
ORCID
Venue
Entropy
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-02-29
Volume
26
Issue
6
Pages
460-460
ISSN
1099-4300 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.20944/preprints202402.1751.v1
PMC
PMC11203236
OpenAlex
W4399083721
Cited by
33
References
38
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 3
FWCI
13.43
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Entropy (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Preprints.org (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Tiny Blue Dot Foundation
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
  • Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Keywords
consciousness, quantum consciousness, quantum superposition, qualia, binding problem, quantum entanglement, phenomenal experience, agency, quantum biology, consciousness assessment

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