Cited by 995Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchCritical Race Theory in EducationRace, Genetics, and Society

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Critical Race Theory, Race Equity, and Public Health: Toward Antiracism Praxis

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Ford, Chandra L., Airhihenbuwa, Collins O.·2010·American Journal of Public Health

DOI 10.2105/ajph.2009.171058PMC PMC2837428

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Abstract

Racial scholars argue that racism produces rates of morbidity, mortality, and overall well-being that vary depending on socially assigned race. Eliminating racism is therefore central to achieving health equity, but this requires new paradigms that are responsive to structural racism's contemporary influence on health, health inequities, and research. Critical Race Theory is an emerging transdisciplinary, race-equity methodology that originated in legal studies and is grounded in social justice. Critical Race Theory's tools for conducting research and practice are intended to elucidate contemporary racial phenomena, expand the vocabulary with which to discuss complex racial concepts, and challenge racial hierarchies. We introduce Critical Race Theory to the public health community, highlight key Critical Race Theory characteristics (race consciousness, emphases on contemporary societal dynamics and socially marginalized groups, and praxis between research and practice) and describe Critical Race Theory's contribution to a study on racism and HIV testing among African Americans.

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Crichlow, V. J. (2017) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/2153368716687624 · Cited by 9
Conceptualizing Intersecting Dynamics, Disjunctures and Disparities in the Experience of Food Allergy
Page-Reeves, J. (2015) · doi:10.2752/175174414x14006746101790 · Cited by 7
“…treat “women” as an unproblematic, homogeneous category, and does not deal adequately (if at all) with race, ethnicity or class, or their intersectionality (e.g. Anthias 2009; Burkner 2012; Collins 2005; Fine 2012; Ford and Airhihenbuwa 2010; Schultz and Mullings 2005; Viruell-Fuentes et al. 2012).”
Background
“They Don’t Respect Black Women”: Narrating a Young Black Woman’s Harrowing Birthing Experience
Lally, J., Ayoade, E. E., Stadulis, R. E., & Neal-Barnett, A. M. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02467-w · Cited by 6
“Critical race theory (CRT) provides a valuable lens for understanding racial disparities, emphasizing how structural and interpersonal racism shapes healthcare experiences and outcomes for Black women [24].”
Immigration policy as public health policy: Trump’s first administration and a critical public health response to the second
Calhoon, C., & Alang, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1517287 · Cited by 5
Designing the First Pregnancy Guaranteed Income Program in the United States: Qualitative Needs Assessment and Human-Centered Design to Develop the Abundant Birth Project
Karasek, D. A., Williams, J. C., Taylor, M., Cruz, M. M. D. L., Arteaga, S., Bell, S., Castillo, E., Chand, M. A., Coats, A., Hubbard, E. M., et al. (2025) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/60829 · Cited by 7
Equity in Pediatric Hospital-Based Safety and Quality Improvement
Dixon, G. L., Peña, M.-M., Ellison, A. M., & Johnson, T. J. (2024) · Academic Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.acap.2024.01.026 · Cited by 9
Training for the Reality of Diversity: Applying the DEI Training Ladder to a MPA Core Course
Jordan, M. M., Carnegie, V. T., & Carlee, R. (2023) · Journal of Public Affairs Education · doi:10.1080/15236803.2023.2236006 · Cited by 8
“…framework, a transdisciplinary intellectual movement, a methodological instrument, a problem-identifying device, and a tool to craft solutions to societal inequities (Delgado & Stefancic, 2019; Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010; Graham et al., 2011; Kolivoski et al., 2014; Solórzano & Yosso, 2002).”
Background
Physician Perspectives on Responding to Clinician-Perpetuated Interpersonal Racism Against Black Patients with Serious Illness
Brown, C. E., Snyder, C. R., Marshall, A. R., Cueva, K. L., Jackson, S. Y., Doll, K. M., Golden, S. H., Young, B. A., & Rosenberg, A. R. (2023) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-023-08377-z · Cited by 8
“47 Other frameworks and approaches to health inequities, such as Black feminist bioethics, center communities and move away from asking Black patients to discount their lived experiences and toward an approach that requires HCWs and institutions to first become trustworthy and accountable.”
Background
Entangled Inequalities: U.S. Trends in Self-Rated Health at the Intersection of Gender and Race, 1972–2018
Cummings, J. L. (2023) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-023-03180-z · Cited by 7
“…most appropriate point of reference), to a marginalized group perspective, that privileges heterogeneity (within group variation) over deviation; making central the unique well-being patterns of historically marginalized groups (Bowleg, 2012; Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010; Weber & Parra-Medina, 2003).”
Unpacking racism during COVID-19: narratives from racialized Canadian gay, bisexual, and queer men
Grey, C., Tian, I. L., Skakoon‐Sparling, S., Daroya, E., Klassen, B., Lessard, D., Gaspar, M., Sinno, J., Sang, J. M., Perez‐Brumer, A., et al. (2023) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-023-01961-z · Cited by 10
A Call for a Transformative Public Health Training: The Necessity of Abolition
Zovic, H. L., Riley, T., Perez‐Bill, E., Dsouza, N., & MITCHELL, C. M. (2023) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981231177085 · Cited by 7
“…the deleterious impacts of the PIC on public health, a public health abolitionist training encourages an upstream, community-led focus that centers the margins (Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010) and examines the underlying causes of disease that move beyond the social determinants of health (SDOH).”
BackgroundInfluential
Socio-demographic, maternal, and infant characteristics associated with pacifier use among six-months old infants in Clark County, Nevada
Saniatan, K. L., Neupane, S., Cross, C. L., & Buccini, G. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285097 · Cited by 7
“However, there is a lack of data exploring the different ways maternal ethnicity influences pacifier use across diverse settings, which may contribute to the lack of culturally appropriate nurturing care support amplifying disparities among communities of color [48, 51].”
Physical Activity Beliefs and Behaviors during Pregnancy and their Association with Provider Counseling among Women in the Southern United States
Rebelle, C., Jetté, S., Mills, J. M., & Tinius, R. A. (2022) · Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.5334/paah.210 · Cited by 5
Moderation Analysis of a couple-based HIV/STI Intervention Among Heterosexual Couples in the Criminal Legal System Experiencing Intimate Partner Violence: Results from a Randomized Controlled Trial
Goddard-Eckrich, D., Gilbert, L., Richer, A. M. S., Chang, M., Hunt, T., Henderson, A., Marotta, P., Wu, E., Johnson, K. A., Moses, H., et al. (2022) · Aids and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-022-03897-x · Cited by 6
Operationalizing Academic-Industry Partnerships to Advance Digital Health Equity: Lessons Learned
Lisker, S., Sarkar, U., Aguilera, A., & Lyles, C. (2022) · Journal of health care for the poor and underserved · doi:10.1353/hpu.2022.0164 · Cited by 6
“…groups, 95– 97 restructuring of the innovation ecosystem to demarginalize and center the experiences of people from marginalized groups, 98,99 including supporting venture firms helmed by individuals often excluded from venture capital leadership and tracking diversity metrics across all…”
Addressing bias and knowledge gaps regarding race and ethnicity in neonatology manuscript review
Karvonen, K. L., Bonachea, E. M., Burris, H. H., Fraiman, Y. S., Lee, H. C., Proaño, Á., Walker, V. P., & Parker, M. G. K. (2022) · Journal of Perinatology · doi:10.1038/s41372-022-01420-7 · Cited by 6
“Centering whiteness and white normativity was problematic in a study designed to center at the margins [17].”
Background
Neighborhood Context and Parent Perspectives on Practical Considerations Related to Preschool Location
Guyol, G. G., Chen, F., & Boynton-Jarrett, R. (2022) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409289.2022.2067427 · Cited by 6
“Utilizing a race equity methodology, such as Critical Race Theory (Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010) to center the perspectives and lived experiences of socially marginalized parents has the potential to address racial inequities and improve family engagement and educational opportunities for children.”
Method
Neighborhood Obesogenic Environment and Risk of Prostate Cancer: The Multiethnic Cohort
DeRouen, M. C., Tao, L., Shariff‐Marco, S., Yang, J., Shvetsov, Y. B., Park, S., Albright, C. L., Monroe, K. R., Marchand, L. L., Wilkens, L. R., et al. (2022) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-21-1185 · Cited by 8
Moving toward equity: fostering transdisciplinary research between the social and behavioral sciences and implementation science to end the HIV epidemic
Pyra, M. N., Motley, D., & Bouris, A. (2022) · Current Opinion in HIV and AIDS · doi:10.1097/coh.0000000000000726 · Cited by 10
COVID-19 and Structural Racial Inequity: Lessons Learned for Social Work Education
Fariña, M. D. M., Kim, S.-H., Watson, J., & Dyson, Y. D. (2021) · Journal of Social Work Education · doi:10.1080/10437797.2021.1935370 · Cited by 6
“The core foundation of CRT encourages solution-focused action plans and developments that bridge structural gaps caused by systemic racism, such as food deserts, poverty, and other social determinants of health among racial minority populations (Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010).”
Background
Introduction: This Is Only the Beginning
Leung, S. Y., & López-McKnight, J. R. (2021) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/11969.003.0002 · Cited by 9
Treating risk, risking treatment: experiences of iatrogenesis in the HIV/AIDS and opioid epidemics
Textor, L., & Schlesinger, W. (2021) · Anthropology and Medicine · doi:10.1080/13648470.2021.1926916 · Cited by 6
We’re in This Together: A Reflection on How Bioethics and Public Health Can Collectively Advance Scientific Efforts Towards Addressing Racism
Truong, M., & Sharif, M. Z. (2021) · Journal of Bioethical Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11673-020-10069-w · Cited by 8
Conceptualizing Ethnicity: How Dimensions of Ethnicity Affect Disparities in Health Outcomes Among Latinxs in the United States.
Pirtle, W. N. L., Valdez, Z., Daniels, K. P., Dueñas, M. D., & Castro, D. (2020) · Ethnicity & Disease · doi:10.18865/ed.30.3.489 · Cited by 6
What Is Diversity?
Weissmark, M. S. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190686345.003.0001
“This methodology has since been adapted to the field of health and medicine to help scholars attend to equity while carrying out research.(38) Critical race theorists recognize that racism is ingrained in the United States’ historical fabric and argue we must explicitly identify and name racial power dynamics in order…”
Learning to See Racism: Perspective Transformation Among Stakeholders in a Regional Health and Equity Initiative
Walsh, C. C., Willen, S. S., & Williamson, A. F. (2020) · Journal of Public Health Management and Practice · doi:10.1097/phh.0000000000001171 · Cited by 7
“has more recently come under investigation by population health researchers.(3,4,7,10-19) By structural racism, we mean a “system (consisting of structures, policies, practices and norms) that structures opportunity and assigns value based on phenotype,” which “unfairly disadvantages some individuals and communities”…”
Background
How Adult Women Who Trade Sex Navigate Social Services: A Grounded Theory Study
Gerassi, L. B. (2019) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/1557085119885444 · Cited by 7
“…critical race theory in practice, such acknowledgments may serve to create a safer environment, enhance a woman’s relationship with her provider and other women, and may ultimately increase her likelihood to remain engaged in services (Bryant-Davis & Tummala-Narra, 2017; Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010).”
Background
Creating Habits for Inclusive Change
Foster‐Fishman, P. G., & Watson, E. (2018) · The Foundation Review · doi:10.9707/1944-5660.1443 · Cited by 3
“58 The Foundation Review // thefoundationreview.org Tools experiencing targeted problems and inequities to help recenter efforts within the margins (Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010), challenge existing assumptions and power dynamics (Beer, Finnstrom, & Schrader, 2016), and increase the engagement of…”
Background
How Should We Measure and Interpret Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care?
Clemans-Cope, L., Garrett, A. B., & McMorrow, S. (2023) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4376574 · Cited by 6
Building Structural Empathy to Marshal Critical Education into Compassionate Practice: Evaluation of a Medical School Critical Race Theory Course
Tsai, J. W. (2021) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1017/jme.2021.31 · Cited by 8
Rethinking the Principle of Justice for Marginalized Populations During COVID-19
Ashworth, H. C., Soled, D. R., & Morse, M. E. (2021) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1017/jme.2021.84 · Cited by 6
Innovation and equity in public health research : testing arts-based methods for trauma-informed, culturally-responsive inquiry.
Golden, T. L. (2019) · doi:10.18297/etd/3233 · Cited by 25
“…of neutrality or objectivity, noting that science is, like most systems, constructed via the prioritization of specific values and ways of knowing that have historically privileged specific persons, values, and populations (see Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010; Brown & Strega, 2005; Napier et al., 2014).”
Background
Racism Counterfactuals in Health Research
Bell, C. N., Blackson, E. A., Anderson, A., Stojanovski, K., & Weller, B. E. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02484-9 · Cited by 6
“For example, Ford and Airhihenbuwa (2010) developed the Public Health Critical Race Praxis (PHCRP), as a semi-structured methodology of CRT for public health research and practice.”
“Treating me like a criminal”: A qualitative study of birthing parents' perspectives on racism and biases in newborn drug testing for substance exposure during pregnancy
Huizinga, J. L., Oshman, L. D., Onishchenko, R., Joassaint, M., Madlambayan, E., Sparrentak, M. V., McCabe, K., Townsel, C., Frank, C., Chandanabhumma, P. P., et al. (2025) · Journal of Substance Use and Addiction Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.josat.2025.209745 · Cited by 6
Longitudinal and Geographic Trends in Perceived Racial Discrimination Among Adolescents in the U.S.: The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study
Fields, C. T., Black, C. G., Calhoun, A. J., Rosenblatt, M., Rodriguez, R. X., Aina, J., Thind, J. K., Grayson, J., Khalifa, F., Assari, S., et al. (2024) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2025.03.014 · Cited by 9
Training for transformation: examining food systems courses at US land-grant universities
Hoffs, C. T., Chharan, N., Landry, M. J., Ward, C., Oyewole, K. A., Wang, M. C., Egan, S., Bruce, J. S., & Gardner, C. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems · doi:10.3389/fsufs.2024.1472789 · Cited by 5
Using dialogue-centered approaches to community-engaged research: an application of dialectical inquiry
Sanders, C. E., Borron, A. S., Lamm, A. J., Harrell, E., & Worley, B. (2024) · Discover Global Society · doi:10.1007/s44282-024-00055-7 · Cited by 4
“Overconfidence in the objectivity of evidence-based research may lead to ignorance based on assumptions made prior to entering the field [27].”
Background
Scoping Review of Barriers and Facilitators to Recruitment of Black People With Cancer in Biospecimen-Based Research
Morris, H. N., Winslow, A. T., Barreiro-Rosado, J., Torian, S., & Charlot, M. (2024) · JCO Precision Oncology · doi:10.1200/po.23.00708 · Cited by 7
“…and perspectives of marginalized communities gives voice to racial inequities in biospecimen-based cancer research and is a core concept of PHCRP. 21,22 Community engagement builds trust, increases awareness, and promotes participation in biospecimen-based research among B/AA people with cancer.”
Background
Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Utilization: A Contemporary Review
Tertulien, T., Bush, K. N. V., Jackson, L. R., Essien, U. R., & Eberly, L. A. (2023) · Current Treatment Options in Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11936-023-01025-z · Cited by 4
A guaranteed income intervention to improve the health and financial well-being of low-income black emerging adults: study protocol for the Black Economic Equity Movement randomized controlled crossover trial
Lippman, S. A., Libby, M. K., Nakphong, M. K., Arons, A., Balanoff, M., Mocello, A. R., Arnold, E. A., Shade, S. B., Qurashi, F., Downing, A., et al. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1271194 · Cited by 8
Pro-Con Debate: Perioperative Research Should Be Color-Blind
Willer, B. L., Alalade, E., Toledo, P., & Jimenez, N. (2023) · Anesthesia & Analgesia · doi:10.1213/ane.0000000000006258 · Cited by 4
Wealth index association with self-reported oral health between white and non-white older Brazilians
Júnior, O. L. D. A., Fagundes, M. L. B., Menegazzo, G. R., & Giordani, J. M. D. A. (2023) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/0102-311xen188122 · Cited by 6
Critical Perspectives on Expanding Racial/Ethnic Diversity in the HIV Research Workforce: Comorbidities and Mentoring
Stoff, D. M., Bowleg, L., del Río‐González, A. M., Rodríguez-Díaz, C. E., & Zea, M. C. (2023) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/10901981231157795 · Cited by 7
“Furthermore, critical theoretical frameworks grounded in social justice, such as intersectionality (Bowleg, 2012) and critical race theory (Ford & Airhihenbuwa, 2010) can provide powerful tools to advance academic and health equity.”
Background
A Public Health Critical Race Praxis Informed Congestive Heart Failure Quality Improvement Initiative on Inpatient General Medicine
Osuagwu, C., Khinkar, R. M., Zheng, A., Wien, M. F., Michel, J. D., Desai, S. P., McElrath, E. E., Hinchey, E., Mueller, S. K., Schnipper, J. L., et al. (2023) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-023-08086-7 · Cited by 6
Kenton Award Lecture—Stroke Disparities Research: Learning From the Past, Planning for the Future
Kapral, M. K. (2023) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.122.039562 · Cited by 6

Authors: Ford, C. L., & Airhihenbuwa, C. O.
Affiliations: Pennsylvania State University (US)
ORCID: Ford, Chandra L.
Airhihenbuwa, Collins O.
Venue: American Journal of Public Health
Publisher: American Public Health Association
Published: 2010-04
Volume: 100
Issue: S1
Pages: S30-S35
ISSN: 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
1541-0048
DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2009.171058
PMC: PMC2837428
OpenAlex: W1965164285
Cited by: 995
References: 38
Citations by year: 2026: 54 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 107 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 160 · 2021: 150 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 9
FWCI: 34.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
University Libraries (University of Maryland) (submittedVersion)
Digital Repository at the University of Maryland (University of Maryland College Park)
Funders: W.K. Kellogg Foundation
Center for AIDS Research, University of Washington
National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities
UCLA AIDS Institute
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Critical Race Theory in Education
Social Sciences › Anthropology › Race, Genetics, and Society
Keywords: critical race theory, racial equity, anti-racism, structural racism, health equity, HIV testing, African Americans, racial consciousness, marginalized communities, racial hierarchy
MeSH terms: Humans, Models, Theoretical, Prejudice, Public Health, United States, Racial Groups, Health Status Disparities

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Critical Race Theory, Race Equity, and Public Health: Toward Antiracism Praxis

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