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Suicide and Friendships Among American Adolescents
Open accessAbstract
Objectives. We investigated the relationship between friendships and suicidality among male and female adolescents. Methods. We analyzed friendship data on 13 465 adolescents from the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health to explore the relationship between friendship and suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. We controlled for known factors associated with suicidality. Results. Having had a friend who committed suicide increased the likelihood of suicidal ideation and attempts for both boys and girls. Socially isolated females were more likely to have suicidal thoughts, as were females whose friends were not friends with each other. Among adolescents thinking about suicide, suicide attempts appear largely stochastic, with few consistent risk factors between boys and girls. Conclusions. The friendship environment affects suicidality for both boys and girls. Female adolescents’ suicidal thoughts are significantly increased by social isolation and friendship patterns in which friends were not friends with each other.
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“adolescents may be particularly susceptible toward the socialization of self-injury when a close friend endorses depressive symptoms, NSSI, or suicidal ideation and behavior (Bearman & Moody 2004, Kandel et al. 1991, Rew et al. 2001, Yoder 1999)”
From Adolescent Suicide as a Failure of Acute Stress-Response Systems. (2019) · cites this paper as Bearman & Moody 2004
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“Likewise, networks appear to have gendered effects, with girls being most at risk of suicidality when they have exceedingly small social networks or are immersed in exceedingly large ones (Bearman and Moody, 2004).”
From The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention (2021) · cites this paper as Bearman and Moody, 2004
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“With regard to the 49 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 39 (80%) reported less suicide, fewer suicide attempts, or more negative attitudes toward suicide among the more R/S [155–170] and two (4%) found positive relationships (one study in Delhi, India [171], and one in college students distressed over R/S concerns [172]).”
From Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications (2012) · cites this paper as [164]
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“In girls, a large, fragmented network consisting of friends who were not friends with each other further increased risk of depression because the care of maintaining such networks involved even more work (Bearman and Moody, 2004).”
From Social functioning in major depressive disorder (2016) · cites this paper as Bearman and Moody, 2004
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“37 because the care of maintaining such networks involved even more work (Bearman and Moody, 2004).”
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“(9) Recent work in this area has shown that a variety of health-related phenomena, ranging from sexually transmitted diseases to obesity, smoking, and even suicide, may travel along and within social networks (10,11,12,13,14,15).”
Twenge, J. M., & Martin, G. N. (2020) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.12.018 · Cited by 582
Social network determinants of depression
Rosenquist, J. N., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2011) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2010.13 · Cited by 543
“For example, Bearman and Moody found that social isolation and (among women) having friends who were not friends with each other were two factors predictive for suicidal ideation, suggesting the structural components of a person’s network impacted their behavior.(16) In addition to such structural effects of network p…”
Wyman, P. A., Brown, C. H., LoMurray, M., Schmeelk-Cone, K., Petrova, M., Yu, Q., Walsh, E., Tu, X., & Wang, W. (2010) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2009.190025 · Cited by 536
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“In the United States, Bearman and Moody ( 2004 ) used ADD Health data to examine patterns of risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors separately for 13,465 adolescent boys and girls across a 1-year period.”
BackgroundInfluentialPaluck, E. L., & Shepherd, H. (2012) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030015 · Cited by 417
“…general call to understand the wider consequences of social influence within social networks (Mason, Conrey , & Smith, 2007) and follow a tradition of empirical research attempting to understand peer influence within networks on behavior (e.g., Bearman & Moody, 2004; Coleman, Katz, & Menzel, 1957).”
Peer effects in adolescent overweight
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“Nominated friends outside of school and romantic partners are not captured.14 There are also more sophisticated definitions of social networks that account for mutual friendships, friends of friends, and more (e.g., Bearman and Moody, 2004; Bearman et al., 2004).”
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“This could be explained by a tendency for depression to cause people to interact less with others, or for social isolation to lead to depression (Beck & Alford 2009).”
Social connectedness, mental health and the adolescent brain
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“…of behaviors and attitudes is common in a variety of situations, such as the social propagation of emotions (Cacioppo et al., 2009; Fowler and Christakis, 2008), smoking cessation (Christakis and Fowler, 2008), obesity (Christakis and Fowler, 2007), and suicide (Bearman and Moody, 2004).”
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Adolescent Suicide as a Failure of Acute Stress-Response Systems.
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“A growing body of data also suggests that adolescents may be particularly susceptible toward the socialization of self-injury when a close friend endorses depressive symptoms, NSSI, or suicidal ideation and behavior (Bearman & Moody 2004, Kandel et al. 1991, Rew et al. 2001, Yoder 1999).”
BackgroundMadge, N. J. H., Hawton, K. E., McMahon, E. M., Corcoran, P. E., Leo, D. D., de Wilde, E. J., Fekete, S., van Heeringen, K., Ystgaard, M., & Arensman, E. (2011) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-011-0210-4 · Cited by 280
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Social Networks and the Risk of Gunshot Injury
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“propagation of phenomena such as emotions [16–18], smoking cessation [19], obesity [20], suicide [21], altruism [22], anti-social”
BackgroundFamily structure transitions and adolescent well-being
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The Impact of Social Contagion on Non-Suicidal Self-Injury: A Review of the Literature
Steele, S. J., Jackson, B. M., Swenson, L. P., & Crawford, H. (2013) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2013.748404 · Cited by 256
“For example, Bearman and Moody (2004) found that having a friend who attempted suicide increased adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts.”
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“In studies of social influence on suicide, using the longitudinal Add Health network data set, both Bearman & Moody (2004) and Abrutyn & Mueller (2014) found that individuals with friends who attempted suicide had increased likelihoods of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts.”
MethodSocial Network Dynamics and Biographical Disruption: The Case of “First-Timers” with Mental Illness
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The ripple effect of personality on social structure: Self-monitoring origins of network brokerage.
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“Structural holes in friendship networks tend to induce psychological strain (Heider, 1958) such as thoughts of suicide among teenage girls whose friends are not friends with each other (Bearman & Moody, 2004).”
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Peer pressure against prejudice: A high school field experiment examining social network change
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A puzzle concerning triads in social networks: Graph constraints and the triad census
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“…of friends, higher frequency of social contact, and lower levels of social isolation have been identified as protective against suicidal thoughts and behaviors, substance abuse and other high-risk behaviors (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Kaminski et al., 2009; Uchino, Cacioppo, & KiecoltGlaser, 1996).”
BackgroundDifferentially private data analysis of social networks via restricted sensitivity
Blocki, J., Blum, A. L., Datta, A., & Sheffet, O. (2013) · Conference on Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science · doi:10.1145/2422436.2422449 · Cited by 212
“Local profile queries are a natural extension of predicates to social networks, which can be used to study many interesting properties of a social network like clustering coefficients[22, 17, 4], local bridges [10, 12] and 2-betweeness [11].”
BackgroundThe Social Ecology of Adolescent Alcohol Misuse
Ennett, S. T., Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A. M., Cai, L., Reyes, H. L. M., Faris, R., Hipp, J. R., & DuRant, R. H. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01225.x · Cited by 197
“Relationship closure, based on adolescent reports, was the mean of three dichotomous items per nominated friend measuring whether the adolescent’s parents had met the friend, the adolescent had met the friend’s parents, and adolescent and friend’s parents had met (Bearman & Moody, 2004).”
BackgroundMiranda-Mendizábal, A., Castellví, P., Parés-Badell, O., Almenara, J., Alonso, I., Blasco, M. J., Cebrià, A., Gabilondo, A., Gili, M., Lagares, C., et al. (2017) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.116.196345 · Cited by 188
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Social Capital and Physical Health
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“These studies have tended to focus on the “dark side” of social capital e.g., the contagion of high risk behaviors within networks ‐ such as the spread of suicidal ideation ( Bearman & Moody, 2004 ), injection drug use (Friedman & Aral, 2001), or alcohol and other drug use among adolescents (Valente, Gallaher, & Moutt…”
BackgroundTaliaferro, L. A., & Muehlenkamp, J. J. (2013) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12046 · Cited by 166
Associations among relational values, support, health, and well-being across the adult lifespan
CHOPIK, W. J. (2017) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12187 · Cited by 163
“This finding is consistent with previous research showing that friendship quality often predicts health more so than the quality of other relationships (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Christakis & Fowler, 2007; Giles et al., 2005).”
BackgroundResultSuicide as a derangement of the self-sacrificial aspect of eusociality.
Joiner, T. E., Hom, M. A., Hagan, C. R., & Silva, C. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000020 · Cited by 169
“For example, past studies have revealed marked patterns of social withdrawal and isolation among individuals who experience suicidal ideation (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Cheatle, Wasser, Foster, Olugbodi, & Bryan, 2014), make a suicide attempt (Conwell, 1997; Cui, Cheng, Xu, Chen, & Wang, 2011; Trout,…”
ResultArslan, G., Allen, K., & Ryan, T. (2020) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-020-09721-z · Cited by 189
Predicting future suicide attempts among depressed suicide ideators: A 10-year longitudinal study
May, A. M., Klonsky, E. D., & Klein, D. N. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.04.009 · Cited by 161
“, 2007), but two other studies found no effect childhood sexual abuse (Bearman and Moody, 2004; Benda, 2003).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialFitting In, Standing Out: Navigating the Social Challenges of High School to Get an Education
Crosnoe, R. L. (2011) · Cited by 149
Pachucki, M. C., Ozer, E. J., Barrat, A., & Cattuto, C. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.04.015 · Cited by 158
Czyz, E. K., Liu, Z., & King, C. A. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.651998 · Cited by 144
“Related research, however, suggests that higher levels of peer support and strong friendship ties are associated with less severe suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms and reduced risk of suicide attempts (e.g., Bearman & Moody, 2004; Lewinsohn et al., 1996; Slavin & Rainer, 1990).”
BackgroundAnalysing the connectivity and communication of suicidal users on twitter
Colombo, G. B., Burnap, P., Hodorog, A., & Scourfield, J. (2015) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2015.07.018 · Cited by 147
“In [8] the authors conducted a similar study by investigating the relationship between friendships and suicidality among a larger sample of male and female adolescents in the US.”
BackgroundSocial Aspects of Suicidal Behavior and Prevention in Early Life: A Review
Amitai, M., & Apter, A. (2012) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph9030985 · Cited by 138
“Thus, social network variables are relevant to suicidality in different ways in boys and girls [24].”
BackgroundDonald, M., Dower, J., Correa‐Velez, I., & Jones, M. (2006) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2006.01747.x · Cited by 136
“cant impact on their wellbeing [24,25], what has emerged more recently is the important role that romantic relationships play in regard to young adults’ mental health.”
BackgroundPeer Smoking, Other Peer Attributes, and Adolescent Cigarette Smoking: A Social Network Analysis
Ennett, S. T., Faris, R., Hipp, J. R., Foshee, V. A., Bauman, K. E., Hussong, A. M., & Cai, L. (2008) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-008-0087-8 · Cited by 136
“Similarly, not having friends has been associated with poorer social competencies and adjustment (Hartup 1996) and even suicide ideation in girls ( Bearman and Moody 2004 ).”
BackgroundSuicidal Disclosures among Friends: Using Social Network Data to Understand Suicide Contagion
Mueller, A. S., & Abrutyn, S. (2015) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146514568793 · Cited by 132
Kaminski, J. W., Puddy, R. W., Hall, D. M., Cashman, S. Y., Crosby, A. E., & Ortega, L. (2009) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-009-9472-2 · Cited by 132
“As well, several previous studies with significant results for various connectedness domains on suicide (Bearman and Moody 2004; Borowsky et al. 2001; McKeown et al. 1998; McNeely and Falci 2004) were longitudinal.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMcDermott, R., Fowler, J. H., & Christakis, N. A. (2013) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sot096 · Cited by 139
“For example, the greater the transitivity of the network around a married couple (the more their friends are friends with each other), the lower their risk of divorce might be (similar, for example, to the effect Bearman and Moody found with respect to suicide risk in adolescent girls [2004]).”
Hubbard, D. J., & Matthews, B. A. (2007) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128706296733 · Cited by 140
“It undermines the development of the cohesive friendship networks that are needed for girls’ healthy development (Bearman & Moody, 2004; Hazler & Mellin, 2004).”
BackgroundMueller, A. S., & Abrutyn, S. (2016) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122416663464 · Cited by 132
Estimating peer effects in sexual behavior among adolescents
Ali, M. M., & Dwyer, D. S. (2010) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.12.008 · Cited by 138
“…has been devoted to determine the importance of social networks in influencing adolescent behaviors, especially health risky behaviors and outcomes (Ali & Dwyer, 2009; Bearman & Moody, 2004; Guo, Elder, Cai, & Hamilton, 2009; Jaccard, Blanton, & Dodge, 2005; Valente, Fujimoto, Chou, & Metz, 2009).”
BackgroundSocial isolation: A conceptual and measurement proposal
Zavaleta, D., Samuel, K., & Mills, C. (2014) · University of Oxford · doi:10.35648/20.500.12413/11781/ii029 · Cited by 130
“In fact, social isolation is linked to suicide in both a direct and fundamental way (Trout, 1980) and has been found to increase suicidal thoughts, particularly among young women (Bearman and Moody 2004).”
Association Between Social Integration and Suicide Among Women in the United States
Tsai, A. C., Lucas, M., & Kawachi, I. (2015) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2015.1002 · Cited by 127
“Consequently, most studies in this field have instead used proxy outcomes such as suicide attempts (28, 29), or have been based on populations enriched for psychiatric morbidity (e.”
BackgroundMental health and social networks after disaster
Bryant, R. A., Gallagher, H. C., Gibbs, L., Pattison, P., MacDougall, C., Harms, L., Block, K., Baker, E., Sinnott, V., Ireton, G., et al. (2017) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2016.15111403 · Cited by 122
Parigi, P., & Henson, W. B. (2014) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-071312-145646 · Cited by 134
Arango, A., Opperman, K. J., Gipson, P. Y., & King, C. A. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.05.003 · Cited by 136
Network Exposure and Homicide Victimization in an African American Community
Papachristos, A. V., & Wildeman, C. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301441 · Cited by 123
Fotti, S. A., Katz, L. Y., Afifi, T. O., & Cox, B. J. (2006) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370605101106 · Cited by 123
“Adolescent suicidal behaviours, including ideation and attempts, are a relatively common psychiatric emergency (1), and such adolescents are at significant risk of completed suicide (2).”
BackgroundResultImpact of Modeling on Adolescent Suicidal Behavior
Insel, B. J., & Gould, M. S. (2008) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.01.007 · Cited by 122
Peer relationships and suicide ideation and attempts among Chinese adolescents
Cui, S., Cheng, Y., Xu, Z., Chen, D., & Wang, Y. (2010) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2010.01181.x · Cited by 136
US Suicide Rates by Age Group, 1970–2002: An Examination of Recent Trends
McKeown, R. E., Cuffe, S. P., & Schulz, R. (2006) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2005.066951 · Cited by 120
Social Control and Youth Suicidality: Situating Durkheim's Ideas in a Multilevel Framework
Maimon, D., & Kuhl, D. C. (2008) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240807300603 · Cited by 119
Giletta, M., Prinstein, M. J., Abela, J. R. Z., Gibb, B. E., Barrocas, A. L., & Hankin, B. L. (2015) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038652 · Cited by 117
Positive Social Support, Negative Social Exchanges, and Suicidal Behavior in College Students
Hirsch, J. K., & Barton, A. L. (2011) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2010.515635 · Cited by 151
“28 – 30 On the other hand, lower levels of parental and peer support are associated with poor academic performance and increased aggression, anxiety, and depression.”
BackgroundSoto‐Sanz, V., Castellví, P., Piqueras, J. A., Rodríguez‐Marín, J., Rodríguez‐Jiménez, T., Miranda‐Mendizábal, A., Parés‐Badell, O., Almenara, J., Alonso, I., Blasco, M. J., et al. (2019) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13036 · Cited by 112
Fleming, T. M., Merry, S., Robinson, E. M., Denny, S., & Watson, P. D. (2007) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/00048670601050481 · Cited by 116
“Adolescent friendships may be important in terms of suicide ideation or where other dimensions of peer relationships (such as bullying) are targeted [19,42], but may be less significant in suicide attempt risk.”
BackgroundThe Peer Context and the Development of the Perpetration of Adolescent Dating Violence
Foshee, V. A., Benefield, T., Reyes, H. L. M., Ennett, S. T., Faris, R., Chang, L., Hussong, A. M., & Suchindran, C. (2013) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-013-9915-7 · Cited by 120
“2010), whereas intransitive triads reflect unbalanced and potentially discordant relationships (Bearman and Moody 2004).”
Palinkas, L. A., Holloway, I. W., Rice, E., Fuentes, D., Wu, Q., & Chamberlain, P. (2011) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-6-113 · Cited by 113
“, [31]].”
Dynamical Models Explaining Social Balance and Evolution of Cooperation
Traag, V., Dooren, P. M. V., & Leenheer, P. D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060063 · Cited by 110
“The individuals in an unbalanced triad have an incentive to adjust their opinions so as to reduce the stress experienced in such a situation [2].”
BackgroundHigher-order clustering in networks
Yin, H., Benson, A. R., & Leskovec, J. (2018) · Physical review. E · doi:10.1103/physreve.97.052306 · Cited by 113
Wyman, P. A., Pickering, T. A., Pisani, A. R., Rulison, K. L., Schmeelk‐Cone, K., Hartley, C. M., Gould, M. S., Caine, E. D., LoMurray, M., Brown, C. H., et al. (2019) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13102 · Cited by 110
“Moreover, as with nearly all studies investigating STB in general populations (Bearman & Moody, 2004) our findings are limited by self-report without other sources of evidence to confirm differences in STB rates across schools.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBenedetti, F., Durando, J., & Vighetti, S. (2014) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2014.01.016 · Cited by 109
“Interindividual propagation of behaviors and attitudes is common in a variety of situations, such as the social propagation of emotions [9,18], smoking cessation [12], obesity [13], and suicide [1].”
Feasibility of Screening Adolescents for Suicide Risk in “Real-World” High School Settings
Hallfors, D. D., Brodish, P., Khatapoush, S., Sanchez, V. A., Cho, H., & Steckler, A. (2005) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2004.057281 · Cited by 115
“Strong social support networks and peer relationships are protective.(17,18) An effective population-based strategy to prevent adolescent suicide should include a school-based approach, given that such an approach is the most efficient way to reach large numbers of young people.”
BackgroundFaris, R., & Ennett, S. T. (2010) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2010.06.003 · Cited by 115
How people live with or get over being suicidal: a review of qualitative studies
Lakeman, R., & FitzGerald, M. (2008) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04773.x · Cited by 108
RACE, FRIENDSHIP NETWORKS, AND VIOLENT DELINQUENCY
Haynie, D., & Payne, D. (2006) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00063.x · Cited by 118
Eskin, M., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., & Altınyazar, V. (2010) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-010-0254-7 · Cited by 110
“Indeed, a vast array of scientific evidence indicates that social support is one of the strongest protective factors against suicidal behavior [4, 12, 20, 35].”
BackgroundTHE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES & SOCIAL STUDIES
Astuti, K. S., & Prabawa, S. P. A. K. U. K. U. H. (2021) · Journal of Humanities and Social Studies · Cited by 104
Metadata
- Authors
- Bearman, P. S., & Moody, J.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Public Health
- Publisher
- American Public Health Association
- Published
- 2004-01
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 89-95
- ISSN
- 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-0048
- PMC
- PMC1449832
- OpenAlex
- W1970545454
- Cited by
- 760
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 60 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 15.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Columbia Academic Commons (Columbia University)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD 31921, P01HD031921)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Health › Gun Ownership and Violence Research
- Keywords
- adolescent suicide, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts, friendship, peer relationships, social isolation, gender differences, suicide bereavement
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Role, Self Concept, Social Support, Suicide, Suicide, Attempted, United States, Logistic Models, Friends
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