Suicidal Disclosures among Friends: Using Social Network Data to Understand Suicide Contagion
Open accessAbstract
A robust literature suggests that suicide is socially contagious; however, we know little about how and why suicide spreads. Using network data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we examine the effects of alter's (1) disclosed and (2) undisclosed suicide attempts, (3) suicide ideation, and (4) emotional distress on ego's mental health one year later to gain insights into the emotional and cultural mechanisms that underlie suicide contagion. We find that when egos know about alter's suicide attempt, they report significantly higher levels of emotional distress and are more likely to report suicidality, net of extensive controls; however, alter's undisclosed suicide attempts and ideation have no significant effect on ego's mental health. Finally, we find evidence that emotional distress is contagious in adolescence, though it does not seem to promote suicidality. We discuss the implications of our findings for suicide contagion specifically and sociology more generally.
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A study using network data with pairs of adolescent friends found that youth who did not know their friend had attempted suicide were not at higher risk of suicidality over time, though if they did know they were.
“The study found that youth who did not know their friend had attempted suicide were not at higher risk of suicidality over time, though if they did know they were.”
From The Social Roots of Suicide: Theorizing How the External Social World Matters to Suicide and Suicide Prevention (2021) · cites this paper as Mueller and Abrutyn, 2015
Previous research suggests suicidal behaviors are influenced by affiliation with peers who have engaged in suicidal behaviors.
“Previous research also suggests suicidal behaviors are influenced by affiliation with peers who have engaged in suicidal behaviors,29”
From Evidence-based youth suicide prevention and intervention in pediatric primary care settings. (2024) · cites this paper as [29]
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“…et al., 2006; Gould et al., 2014)– especially celebrity suicides – or (2) personal role models, like parents or friends (Abrutyn and Mueller, 2014a; Mueller and Abrutyn, 2015; Mueller et al., 2015a; Randall et al., 2015; Fletcher, 2017; Myfanwy et al., 2017), is associated with increased risk…”
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“Research has identified the presence of adverse events in online peer support including negative perceptions of moderation [8,10,11], emotional and behavioral contagion [11-15], negative debate [8,14], co-rumination [16] , collusion [13], and negative interactions with other users [8,11].”
The power of (Mis)perception: Rethinking suicide contagion in youth friendship networks
Zimmerman, G. M., Rees, C., Posick, C., & Zimmerman, L. A. (2016) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.03.046 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Culture in Mind – An Enactivist Account
Hutto, D. D., Gallagher, S., Ilundáin‐Agurruza, J., & Hipólito, I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.009 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The Role of Multilayered Peer Groups in Adolescent Depression: A Distributional Approach
Lee, D., & Lee, B. (2020) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/709425 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Instability of emotional relationships and suicide among youth: a qualitative study
Fallahi‐Khoshknab, M., Amirian, Z., Maddah, S. S. B., Khankeh, H. R., & Dalvandi, A. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04534-0 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Bilello, D., Townsend, E., Broome, M. R., Armstrong, G., & Heyes, S. B. (2024) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(24)00170-6 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Pallotti, F., Tubaro, P., Casilli, A. A., & Valente, T. W. (2017) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2017.1339371 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“of health outcomes including people's capacity to cope with stress (Thoits 1995), hypertension (Cornwell and Waite 2012) and suicide attempts (Mueller and Abrutyn 2015).”
Suicide exposure and impact within a non-representative Australian community sample
Maple, M. J., & Sanford, R. (2019) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2018.1554609 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“2019 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC impact of exposure to suicide attempt reports higher levels of psychosocial distress for those exposed to the suicide attempt (Bottomley, Abrutyn, Smigelsky, & Neimeyer, 2018) and links between this exposure and suicide contagion (Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015).”
BackgroundBottomley, J. S., Abrutyn, S. B., Smigelsky, M. A., & Neimeyer, R. A. (2017) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2017.1387632 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Heinsch, M., Geddes, J., Sampson, D. L., Brosnan, C., Hunt, S., Wells, H., & KAY‐LAMBKIN, F. J. (2019) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2019.1691003 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…openness and inhibition that characterizes online interaction creates a range of ethical quandaries for e-mental health providers, particularly in light of research on emotional contagion and suicide (see for example, Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015; Sueki, Yonemoto, Takeshima, & Inagaki, 2014).”
BackgroundGendron, M., Mesquita, B., & Barrett, L. F. (2020) · Culture, Mind, and Brain · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.010 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Crudgington, H., Wilson, E., Copeland, M., Morgan, C., & Knowles, G. (2022) · Adolescent Research Review · doi:10.1007/s40894-022-00196-3 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…(i.e., a binary measure of inaccurately reporting that a friend did not attempt suicide when the friend did report this) and friends’ emotional distress (i.e., higher mean score is equal to higher distress) and associations with adolescents’ own ideation and attempts (Mueller and Abrutyn, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialWarren, J. R., Muller, C., Hummer, R. A., Grodsky, E., & Humphries, M. (2020) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023120918082 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“People are influenced by school peers in ways that may benefit or harm their health (Abrutyn and Mueller 2014; Mueller et al. 2010; Mueller and Abrutyn 2015); likewise, peers can provide resources, information, or social norms”
BackgroundRisk factors for suicidality among college students: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Zhao, M., Xin, Y., Bai, X., Zhang, S., Liu, H., Xu, W., Duan, W., Jin, Q., Chen, Y., Luo, Y., et al. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.04.137 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Why Thirteen Reasons Why may elicit suicidal ideation in some viewers, but help others
Mueller, A. S. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.04.014 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
When Friends Bring You Down: Peer Stress Proliferation and Suicidality
Copeland, M., Alqahtani, R., Moody, J. W., Curdy, B., Al-Ghamdi, M. S., & Alqurashi, F. H. (2020) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2020.1746939 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Discussing self-harm or suicidality among peers can further model and normalize the use of these behaviors as coping mechanisms or “cultural scripts” in adolescence (Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialThe Dialectics of Stigma, Silence, and Misunderstanding in Suicidality Survival Narratives
Binnix, T. M., Rambo, C., Abrutyn, S. B., & Mueller, A. S. (2017) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2017.1399753 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Most suicidologists understand that suicide is highly stigmatized (Mueller et al. 2015; Pescosolido 2013).”
BackgroundCulture, Mind, and Brain: Emerging Concepts, Models, and Applications
Kirmayer, L. J., Worthman, C. M., Kitayama, S., Lemelson, R., & Cummings, C. A. (2020) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Suicide postvention for staff and students on university campuses: a scoping review
Allie, S.-L. N., Bantjes, J. R., & Andriessen, K. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-068730 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Diminished psychedelic returns on distress: Marital status and household size
Viña, S. M. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0293675 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Disrupting networks of hate: characterising hateful networks and removing critical nodes
Alorainy, W., Burnap, P., Liu, H., Williams, M., & Giommoni, L. (2022) · Social Network Analysis and Mining · doi:10.1007/s13278-021-00818-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“However, research shows reciprocity has a connection with emotional distress which is significantly associated with the suicidal users (Mueller and Abrutyn 2015).”
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Kim, H. H., & Chang, P. Y. (2018) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soy042 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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What Hindu Sati can teach us about the sociocultural and social psychological dynamics of suicide
Abrutyn, S. B. (2017) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/jtsb.12145 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Quantifying suicide contagion at population scale
Shaman, J. L., Kandula, S., Pei, S., Galanti, M., Olfson, M., Gould, M. S., & Keyes, K. M. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adq4074 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Chae, W., Park, E., & Jang, S. (2020) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2020.152181 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Crosnoe, R. L., & Thorpe, J. D. (2022) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2022.08.008 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“In other words, mental health issues can become a feature of schools, not simply an individual condition, which is not surprising given that adolescence is a developmental period of heightened susceptibility to social influence in an institutionalized setting that is an arena for such influence to play out [12].”
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Liu, K.-Y. (2017) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spw044 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Interestingly, Mueller and Abrutyn (2015) show that only a friend’s suicide attempts and ideation have any impact on one’s suicidality only when disclosed.”
Evidence-based youth suicide prevention and intervention in pediatric primary care settings.
Ruch, D. A., Hughes, J. L., Bridge, J. A., & Fontanella, C. A. (2024) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2024.07.017 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Harris, K. M., & Halpern, C. T. (2022) · Annual Review of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120920-042217 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gender-specific Pathways of Peer Influence on Adolescent Suicidal Behaviors
Fletcher, J. M. (2017) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023117729952 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Experiences With Suicide Loss: A Qualitative Study
Mary McDaniel, B., Daly, P., Pacheco, C. L., & Crist, J. D. (2022) · Clinical Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/10547738221119344 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Suicide loss survivors are defined in many ways from a significant other to an acquaintance or knowing a person who has died by suicide (Clark & Goldney, 1995; Levi-Belz & Lev-Ari, 2019; Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015).”
Perfil epidemiológico e tendência temporal da mortalidade por suicício em adolescentes
Silva, P. J. D. C., Feitosa, R. A., Machado, M. F., Quirino, T. R. L., Correia, D. S., Wanderley, R. D. A., & Souza, C. D. F. D. (2021) · Jornal Brasileiro de Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/0047-2085000000338 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Mitchell, K. J., Banyard, V. L., Ybarra, M. L., Jones, L. M., Colburn, D., Cerel, J., & DUNSIGER, S. I. (2025) · Mental Health Science · doi:10.1002/mhs2.70029 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Werther Effect Revisited: Do Suicides in Books Predict Actual Suicides?
Chen, Y., Yan, F., He, G., & Yan, W. (2018) · Poetics · doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2020.101441 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Neuroanthropological Perspectives on Culture, Mind, and Brain
Lende, D. H., & Downey, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.014 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Mutual Constitution of Culture and the Mind
Kitayama, S., & Yu, Q. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.006 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A social ecological approach to social contagion of self-harm among young people
Wen, X., Sun, S., Lin, D., Yue, W., & Chen, R. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00495-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…stronger school ties might fulfill essential psychosocial needs by fostering belongingness and self-worth, higher levels of attachment might intensify negative social comparisons and hypersensitivity to peer norms, including detrimental coping strategies and harmful behavioural scripts 97,109,110 .”
Posick, C., & Zimmerman, G. M. (2020) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2020.1803024 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“This is consistent with a long line of research on suicidal contagion (see Mueller and Abrutyn 2015).”
ResultKirmayer, L. J., Worthman, C. M., & Kitayama, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.028 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Neurodiversity as a Conceptual Lens and Topic of Cross-Cultural Study
Cascio, M. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.027 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Isolation but Diffusion? A Structural Account of Depression Clustering among Adolescents
Zhao, J., Robinson, D. T., & Wu, C. (2020) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0190272520949452 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Using data from Add Health, researchers find adolescent girls are more vulnerable than boys to friends’ and family’s suicide suggestions (Abrutyn and Mueller 2014; Mueller and Abrutyn 2015).”
BackgroundMethodYan, Y., Li, J., Liu, X., Li, Q., & Yu, N. X. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/48907 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Suicide clusters among young Kenyan men
Goodman, M. L., Puffer, E. S., Keiser, P. H., & Gitari, S. (2017) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105317743803 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This question mimics a measure in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health study that shows the number of suicide attempts among friends predicts later suicide ideation among respondents (Mueller and Abrutyn, 2015).”
InfluentialKirmayer, L. J., Gómez-Carrillo, A., Langlois‐Thérien, T., Ramstead, M. J. D., & Gold, I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.012 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Digital Media and Youth Suicide: Analysis of Media Reporting on “Blue Whale” Case
Lozano, P. S. S.-M., & Rodrigo, M. L. J. (2021) · Communication & Society · doi:10.15581/003.34.3.117-133 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Additionally, studies have shown that peer modelling of suicidal behaviours can also play a role in the diffusion of suicide among youth (Abrutyn & Mueller, 2014; Mueller, 2017; Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015).”
The influence of peer non-suicidal self-harm on young adults’ urges to self-harm: experimental study
Pitman, A., Lowther, M., Pike, A. C., Davies, J., de Cates, A. N., Buckman, J. E. J., & Robinson, O. J. (2023) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2023.51 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Exposure to peer self-harm is associated with the onset of personal suicidal and non-suicidal self-harm (Jarvi et al ., 2013; Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015; Quigley et al ., 2016; Zhu et al ., 2016), as consistent with qualitative accounts (Hodgson, 2004; Klineberg et al ., 2013; Hetrick et al ., 2020;…”
Lee, B., & Pescosolido, B. A. (2024) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224241288179 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…to individuals who have suicidal attempts, ideation, or death translate into emotions, attitudes, and behaviors that spread through social networks and influence similar outcomes (Abrutyn and Mueller 2014; Baller and Richardson 2002; Bearman and Moody 2004; Mueller and Abrutyn 2015, 2016).”
Cultural Priming Effects and the Human Brain
Han, S., & Northoff, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.011 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Kirmayer, L. J., Worthman, C. M., & Kitayama, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.002 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ritual and Religion as Social Technologies of Cooperation
Kavanagh, C. M., Jong, J., & Whitehouse, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.016 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Cultural Brain as Historical Artifact
Boddice, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.018 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Social Media Responses to Online Suicide-Related News Articles
Edwards, T., Torok, M. H., McGillivray, L., Ford, T., Mok, K., Li, E., & Larsen, M. E. (2020) · Crisis · doi:10.1027/0227-5910/a000724 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“For instance, studies have shown a relationship between pro-suicide material available online and increased suicide rates (Colombo, Burnap, Hodorog, & Scourfield, 2016; Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015).”
ResultA Review of the Werther Effect and Depictions of Suicide: 13 Reasons Why
Schaffer, E. R. (2018) · UC Merced Undergraduate Research Journal · doi:10.5070/m4102038937 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Reward of Musical Emotions and Expectations
Gold, B. P., & Zatorre, R. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.021 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Anderson, B. (2022) · Asian journal of social science · doi:10.1016/j.ajss.2022.06.003 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bae, Y., & Lee, J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0290072 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Suicide-related disclosure: implications for inclusion and recovery
Sheehan, L. L., Oexle, N., Bushman, M., Fulginiti, A., & Frey, L. M. (2019) · Journal of Public Mental Health · doi:10.1108/jpmh-01-2019-0012 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zhang, J., Uscola, C. J., Abrutyn, S. B., & Mueller, A. S. (2024) · Philosophy of the Social Sciences · doi:10.1177/00483931241246069 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…Durkheim ’ s method is the dominant method (Mueller et al. 2021; Wray, Colen, and Pescosolido 2011) — even as some fruitful efforts have shifted the lens from population-level research to meso-level networks (Mueller and Abrutyn 2015; Pescosolido and Georgianna 1989; Baller and Richardson 2009).”
Worthman, C. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.007 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Keister, L. A., Moody, J. W., & Wolff, T. J. (2022) · RSF The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2022.8.4.07 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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Liu, D., Wei, X., Jia, L., Huang, S., & Bao, Z. (2025) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/da/1787378 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Graham, J., & Chiang, Y.-C. (2025) · Educational Policy · doi:10.1177/08959048251337436 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Furthermore, exposure to self-harm in others and proximity to peers who died by suicide are additional risk factors for youth suicidality (Abrutyn et al., 2020; Mueller & Abrutyn, 2015).”
Capturing Context Is Not Enough
Lemelson, R., & Tucker, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.023 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Stendel, M. S., Ramstead, M. J. D., & Veissière, S. P. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.026 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Social Media During the School Shooting Contagion Period
Kien, S., Begay, T., Lee, A., & Stefanidis, A. (2019) · Violence and Gender · doi:10.1089/vio.2019.0043 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Abrutyn, S. B. (2016) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-32250-6_1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Neural Mechanisms Underlying Social Norms
Mu, Y., & Gelfand, M. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108695374.015 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Do Gun‐Purchase Waiting Periods Save Lives?
Arnold, G. E., & Priestley, M. B. (2025) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4970 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“There is evidence that suicides are socially contagious, using data from media reports (Stack 2005, 2009; Gould 2001; Romer et al. 2006; Gould et al. 2014) and peer groups (Baller and Richardson 2009; Abrutyn and Mueller 2014; Mueller and Abrutyn 2015; Fletcher 2017).”
Commensality and academic performance: measuring peer acceptance among college students
Wen, J., Lyu, W., Liu, J., & Yang, L. (2025) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-025-00357-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“While the association between peer relationships and individual well-being — such as depression 56 – 58 , adjustment outcomes 59 , and decision-makingbehaviorslikeprosocialbehavior 60 ,self-injuriousbehavior, and risk-taking behavior 61 — has been extensively studied, the link between .”
Healing from Suicide: How Suicide Disclosures Can Facilitate Social Integration and Healing
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- Authors
- Mueller, A. S., & Abrutyn, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Memphis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mueller, Anna S.
- Venue
- Journal of Health and Social Behavior
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2015-02-25
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 131-148
- ISSN
- 0022-1465 (ISSN-L)
- 2150-6000
- PMC
- PMC4472458
- OpenAlex
- W2157573144
- Cited by
- 132
- References
- 86
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 9.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Health and Social Behavior (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Michigan State University
- National Institutes of Health
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P01- HD31921, P01HD031921)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Suicide and Self-Harm Studies
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Homicide, Infanticide, and Child Abuse
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health via Writing
- Keywords
- suicide contagion, suicide attempts, suicidal ideation, emotional distress, mental health, adolescent social networks, disclosure, social networks, adolescent to adult transition
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Peer Group, Risk Factors, Social Support, Suicide, Disclosure, Suicidal Ideation
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