New Modes of Learning Enabled by AI Chatbots: Three Methods and Assignments
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Understanding is based on the connection of a specific concept with relevant background knowledge and depends on an exercise of cognitive agency, thus enabling the student to flexibly apply it to new and different contexts.
“Instead, understanding is based on the connection of a specific concept with the relevant background knowledge and depends on an exercise of cognitive agency, thus enabling the student to flexibly apply it to new and different contexts (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
From ChatGPT and the Technology-Education Tension: Applying Contextual Virtue Epistemology to a Cognitive Artifact (2024) · cites this paper as Mollick & Mollick, 2022
LLMs can act as a thought partner for students and enhance understanding by providing detailed explanations and step-by-step solutions.
“Third, LLMs can act as a thought partner for students and enhance understanding by providing detailed explanations and step-by-step solutions (Mollick and Mollick 2022, Kasneci et al. 2023, Meyer et al. 2023, Extance 2023).”
From AI Meets the Classroom: When Do Large Language Models Harm Learning? (2024) · cites this paper as Mollick and Mollick 2022
For students with knowledge of a topic, AI can be used to help generate examples and explanations and prompt them to explain a topic to the AI and clear up inaccuracies, gaps, and missing aspects of a topic.
“For students with knowledge of a topic, you can use AI to help generate examples and explanations and prompt them to explain a topic to the AI and clear up inaccuracies, gaps, and missing aspects of a topic (see also Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
From Assigning AI: Seven Approaches for Students, with Prompts (2023) · cites this paper as Mollick & Mollick, 2022
Mollick and Mollick argue that ChatGPT can improve transfer, evaluation, and breaking the illusion of explanatory depth.
“Mollick and Mollick argue that ChatGPT can improve 'transfer' (application of knowledge to other contexts), 'evaluation' (to deepen knowledge) and 'breaking the illusion of explanatory depth' (the impression one has that they possess more knowledge than they do) [32].”
From Generative artificial intelligence in higher education: Evidence from an analysis of institutional policies and guidelines (2025) · cites this paper as [32]
GPT has exhibited human-level performance on a variety of tasks and better performance than existing LLMs.
“GPT has been lauded for its ability to exhibit human-level performance on a variety of tasks (e.g., passing the Bar Exam or acing the SAT test), and better performance than existing LLMs (47, 48).”
From GPT is an effective tool for multilingual psychological text analysis (2024) · cites this paper as [48]
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What if the devil is my guardian angel: ChatGPT as a case study of using chatbots in education
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“Several preprints of studies and numerous blog posts and media outlets have reported the advantages of ChatGPT in education (Zhai, 2022); some have even provided guidelines on using it in classrooms (Lieberman, 2023; Mollick & Mollick, 2022; Ofgang, 2022).”
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“ChatGPT has been recognised for its ability to develop assessment questions, lesson plans, and curricula in higher education (Dwivedi et al., 2023; Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
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“There is also a growing set of studies examining specific economic impacts and opportunities for LLMs (Bommasani et al., 2021; Felten et al., 2023; Korinek, 2023; Mollick and Mollick, 2022; Noy and Zhang, 2023; Peng et al., 2023).”
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“GPT has been lauded for its ability to exhibit human - level performance on a variety of tasks (e.g., passing the Bar Exam or acing the SAT test), and better performance than existing LLMs (47, 48).”
BackgroundAssigning AI: Seven Approaches for Students, with Prompts
Mollick, E. R., & Mollick, L. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4475995 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
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“An envisioned shift from conventional, didactic teaching methods to more interactive, student-centered learning experiences could result in more engaging teaching and the development of higher-order cognitive skills (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
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“However, recent studies indicate that there is a need for empirical research to examine these developments in context where we can gain insights about the impact they have on practices (Mollick and Mollick 2022; Nikolic et al. 2023).”
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“Currently, AI is an exciting tool to play around with and perhaps incorporate into the classroom (e.g., Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
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“…are considered a turning point in the fi eld of AI and are widely believed to have the potential to revolutionize a wide range of industries and applications, from marketing and sales, operations, human resource management, risk, and legal, to research and development (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
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“…may be utilised to automate a range of educational tasks, such as test question generation, including open-ended questions, test correction, or even essay grading, feedback provision, analysing student feedback surveys, and so on (Mollick and Mollick, 2022; Rasul et al. 2023; Gimpel et al. 2023).”
The ethical implications of using generative chatbots in higher education
Williams, R. T. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2023.1331607 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“The benefits of AI in education have been well-publicised in the literature (Zhai, 2022), and this has led to a rise of a new area of ‘best practice’ guides for using AI in classrooms (Mollick and Mollick, 2022; Lieberman, 2023).”
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“Nonetheless, at university level instruction, ChatGPT could be useful in stimulating critical thinking, through output evaluations or assessments (Mollick and Mollick, 2022).”
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“Mollick and Mollick (2022) contend that GenAIbots can address classroom challenges such as promoting transfer, correcting overestimated comprehension, and fostering critical evaluation.”
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“…challenges in learning, including improving transfer of knowledge, dispelling misconceptions, and promoting critical thinking skills among students (Mollick & Mollick, 2022), and can be utilized as an effective teaching assistant in online learning environments by helping to enhance students ’…”
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“Our study suggests that it can also help decision-makers learn — a so-far mostly neglected implication (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
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“…field due to its impact, especially in the higher education context. ai-based tools have substantially affected education in the 21st century (Mollick & Mollick, 2022). ai is employed to automate processes, analyse vast quantities of data, and provide predictive insights that may…”
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“Based on this research, written initial guidelines as well as recommendations on how to possibly integrate them into educational settings were developed (Gimpel et al., 2023; Kasneci et al., 2023; Mollick and Mollick, 2022).”
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“According to Mollick and Mollick (2022), the implementation of generative AI can improve the learning process by facilitating the application of acquired knowledge to the novel situations.”
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“It is also good at producing content that lacks any legitimate basis (Mollick & Mollick, 2022) or is laden with human biases, which increases its level of bias (Bender et al., 2021; Haluza & Jungwirth, 2023).”
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Application of ChatGPT for automated problem reframing across academic domains
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“In addition, Mollick and Mollick (2022) also suggest using ChatGPT to support learners with knowledge transfer by applying acquired knowledge to different situations, raising awareness of the limitations of their knowledge, and encouraging critical thinking about the information.”
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“In fact, other important learning aims are the development of ‘understanding’ (Mollick & Mollick, 2022; Pritchard, 2013, 2016) and ‘metacognition’, intended here as a form of knowledge concerning the agent’s awareness of the availability of tools, and the reliability (and reasons for the…”
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“…(Rudolph et al., 2023; Qadir, 2023, Williams 2024), the potential benefits are also well-acknowledged, including enhancements in productivity, a deeper comprehension of AI technology and the subject matter, and increased inclusivity (Mollick & Mollick, 2022, 2023; Rudolph et al., 2023).”
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“…should provide clear expectations for each underlying level, enabling students to generate effective prompts (e.g., list 10 open access academic databases in the discipline of “artificial intelligence” and provide their URLs) and critically examine LLM generated texts (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
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“In a recently published article (Mollick & Mollick, 2022), Dr. Mollick explained that students need exposure to varied examples and explanations to transfer and apply what they learned in the classroom (e.g., knowledge, skills, strategies), and AI can be used to improve the transfer of concepts.”
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“Several guidelines on using ChatGPT in classrooms have been published (e.g., Herft, 2023; Lieberman, 2023; Mollick & Mollick, 2022; Ofgang, 2022; Sabzalieva & Valentini, 2023) without any scientific analysis of their effects on students learning.”
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“Second, research on AI in education was purposively selected to represent distinct classes of AI technologies, including adaptive learning platforms and intelligent tutoring systems (e.g., Aleven et al., 2016; VanLehn, 2016), learning analytics and dashboard systems (Perrotta & Selwyn, 2020), and generative AI tools s…”
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“Advancements in integrating these LLMs are already applied in an educational context, as demonstrated by Khan Academy’s Khanmigo platform in the K-12 setting (Khan Academy, n.d.).”
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“Mollick and Mollick (2022) proposed numerous ‘understanding what good looks like’ styles of assessment to be used with GenAI.”
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“It has also shown advantages in education [21], with provided guidelines on its classroom use [22].”
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“…process enabled critical analysis of ChatGPT’s capabilities in the context of their unique teaching and research practices (Dieterle et al., 2022; Goodyear et al., 2021; Kukulska-Hulme et al., 2023; Mollick & Mollick, 2022, 2023a, 2023b; Sharples, 2023; Grassini, 2023; Su & Yang, 2023).”
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“Student use of AI can be used to improve writing and teach that AI output is not necessarily high-quality (Mollick, 2023; Mollick & Mollick, 2022; Terwiesch, 2023).”
Ahadi, N., Zanjanab, A. G., Sorooshian, S., Monametsi, G. L., Virutamasen, P., Wongpreedee, K., Deebhijarn, S., & Taghipour, A. (2023) · IEEE Region 10 Conference (TENCON) · doi:10.1109/tencon58879.2023.10322527 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
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“…AI models such as ChatGPT can be integrated into writing classrooms to assist students in improving their writing skills with real-time feedback and suggestions (Mollick & Mollick, 2022), and whether students ’ essay-writing has been improved with ChatGPT as an assistant (Ba š ic ́ et al., 2023).”
Teaching Information Literacy and Critical Thinking Skills in Chat GPT Time
Bušelić, V. (2023) · International Conference on Computing, Networking, Telecommunications & Engineering Sciences Applications (CoNTESA) · doi:10.1109/contesa61248.2023.10384921 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…high-class universities such as Harvard teaching Intro to Computers Science [34], across engineering education [35], chemical engineering [36], new models of learning [37], numerous revealing journal articles [38], [39], and [40], Joint European High Educational Institutions, [41], to UNESCO [42].”
BackgroundChatGPT as a New Frontier in Arabic Education Technology
Sulaeman, I., Syuhadak, S., & Sulaeman, I. (2023) · Al-Arabi Jurnal Bahasa Arab dan Pengajarannya = Al-Arabi Journal of Teaching Arabic as a Foreign Language · doi:10.17977/um056v7i1p83-105 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zarzosa, J., & Ruvalcaba, C. (2025) · Journal of Marketing Education · doi:10.1177/02734753251319559 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“To break through this illusion of understanding, must learn to recognize the extent of their knowledge and seek out additional information to fill the gaps (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
When Efficiency Meets Fulfillment: Understanding Long-Term LLM Integration in Knowledge Work
Kobiella, C., Mitrevska, T., Schmidt, A., & Draxler, F. (2025) · Symposium on Human-Computer Interaction for Work · doi:10.1145/3729176.3729180 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Jang, E.-S., & Oh, K. (2025) · The Journal of Korean Association of Computer Education · doi:10.32431/kace.2025.28.7.008 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Secondary teachers’ use and beliefs about generative artificial intelligence and writing in school
Graham, S., Skar, G. B. U., Kvistad, A. H., & Jeffery, J. V. (2025) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-025-10699-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Will AI Replace Us? Changing the University Teacher Role
Okulicz-Kozaryn, W., Аrtyukhov, А., & Аrtyukhova, N. (2026) · Societies · doi:10.3390/soc16010032 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“As a result, the quality of higher education services improves; • new formats of “human + AI” interaction in education [15,19,28–30].”
CHATGPT, ETUDIANTS ET ENSEIGNANTS-CHERCHEURS : SONT-ILS VRAIMENT FELINS POUR L’AUTRE ?
Godé, C., Lebraty, J., & Bidan, M. (2023) · Management & Data Science · doi:10.36863/mds.a.23595 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
AI Can Help Workers Gain New Technical Capabilities Without Gaining Knowledge
Wiles, E., Krayer, L., Abbadi, M., Awasthi, U., Kennedy, R., Mishkin, P., Sack, D., & Candelon, F. (2024) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4944588 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Exploring Implementations of GenAI in Teaching IS Subjects and Student Perceptions
Jiang, Y., & Nakatani, K. (2025) · Journal of Information Systems Education · doi:10.62273/wfho1011 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“This assignment redesign is based on similar techniques recommended in literature (AlAfnan et al., 2023; Hsiao et al., 2023; Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
InfluentialLicht, K. D. F. (2025) · Journal of Applied Philosophy · doi:10.1111/japp.70026 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zhao, Z., Li, J., Hong, Y., & Yun, T. Y. (2025) · International Journal for Lesson and Learning Studies · doi:10.1108/ijlls-01-2025-0029 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Using Generative AI in Higher Education: A Guide for Instructors
Gimpel, H., Hall, K., Decker, S., Eymann, T., Gutheil, N., Lämmermann, L., Braig, N., Maedche, A., Röglinger, M., Ruiner, C., et al. (2025) · Journal of Information Systems Education · doi:10.62273/qllg7172 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…by overcoming three challenges that are typically hard to address in classrooms: helping students apply their knowledge to new situations, showing students that they may not know as much as they think they do, and teaching them how to think critically about information (Mollick & Mollick, 2022).”
Sain, Z. H., & Kurniati, V. S. D. (2023) · TAMANSISWA INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL IN EDUCATION AND SCIENCE · doi:10.30738/tijes.v5i1.16274 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Welskop, W. (2023) · International Journal of New Economics and Social Sciences · doi:10.5604/01.3001.0053.9601 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Human and AI Ensembles: When Can They Work?Preprint
Choudhary, V., Marchetti, A., Shrestha, Y. R., & Puranam, P. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3902402 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Assessing the ChatGPT Accuracy Through Principles of Statistics Exam: A Performance and ImplicationsPreprint
AL-Qadri, A. H., & Ahmed, S. A. M. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2673838/v1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Brender, J., El‐Hamamsy, L., Uittenhove, K. L., Francesco Mondada, C., & Bumbacher, E. W. (2025) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-03870-8_7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Digital Assessment in Higher Education: Sustainable Trends and Emerging Frontiers in the AI Era
Lelescu, A., & Kabiraj, S. (2024) · Lecture notes in educational technology · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-6136-4_2 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mollick, E. R., & Mollick, L.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mollick, Ethan R.
- ORCID
- Mollick, Ethan R.
- Venue
- SSRN Electronic Journal
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022
- ISSN
- 1556-5068 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4312824346
- Cited by
- 176
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 42 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 54 · 2021: 1
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- SSRN Electronic Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Health Informatics › Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education
- Keywords
- AI chatbots, generative AI in education, transfer of learning, illusion of explanatory depth, AI prompts, classroom assignment, AI in teaching
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