The Cloud Is Material: On the Environmental Impacts of Computation and Data Storage

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some residents reported that the monotonal drone, a frequency hovering within the range of human speech, is particularly disturbing given human ears' attuned sensitivity to discern such frequencies above others.

“some residents reported that the monotonal drone, a frequency hovering within the range of human speech, is particularly disturbing, given the attuned sensitivity of human ears to discern such frequencies above others.”

May combine two claims.

While more reliable technologies and heightened awareness to climate change have made flood cooling largely defunct today, the author still observed behaviors in the data center similarly motivated by fear or hunches.

“While more reliable technologies and heightened awareness to climate change have made “flood cooling” practices largely defunct today, I still observed behaviors in the data center that were similarly motivated by fear or “hunches,” like the one Tom had about aisle C9.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Cloud's stewards have a culture of their own.

“The Cloud’s stewards have a culture of their own.”

May combine two claims.

When residents contacted authorities to intervene, no action was taken because data centers had not technically violated the law and their properties were zoned for industrial purposes.

“when residents contacted the authorities to intervene, to attenuate or quiet their noise, no action was taken, because the data centers had not technically violated the law, and their properties were zoned for industrial purposes.”

• cites [44]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Cloud is not fully automated, nor is it hyperrational; emotion, instinct, and human judgment are enlisted to keep servers running.

“this case study reveals that the Cloud is not fully automated, nor is it hyperrational; emotion, instinct, and human judgment are enlisted to keep servers running.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Servers that fill data centers are dense, specialized assets, with some units valued in the tens of thousands of US dollars.

“The servers that fill the halls of data centers are dense, specialized assets, with some units valued in the tens of thousands of US dollars.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

While community efforts to minimize data center noise pollution are ongoing, residents are resigned to modest goals to improve rather than solve the problem.

“While the efforts of these communities to minimize the noise pollution harming them are ongoing, they are resigned to modest goals to improve rather than solve the problem.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Given the enormous financial cost for every minute of downtime in data centers, incidents attributable to human error are often career-ending for those involved.

“Given the enormous financial cost for every minute of downtime in data centers, incidents attributable to human error are often “career-ending” for those involved, as one industry veteran relayed to me in a virtual interview.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Smaller-scale traditional data centers have often been set up within older buildings not optimized for changing power, cooling, and data storage capacity needs.

“Smaller-scale, traditional data centers have often been set up within older buildings that are not optimized for everchanging power, cooling, and data storage capacity needs.”

May combine two claims.

In Bluffdale, Utah, residents are suffering from water shortages and power outages as a result of the nearby Utah Data Center, which consumes seven million gallons of water daily.

“In Bluffdale, Utah, residents are suffering from water shortages and power outages, as a result of the nearby Utah Data Center, a facility of the US National Security Agency (NSA) that guzzles seven million gallons of water daily to operate.”

• cites [31]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Some hyperscale data centers have pledged to become carbon-neutral via offsets and renewable energy, while many smaller-scale data centers lack the resources and capital for similar sustainability initiatives.

“some of the most advanced, “hyperscale” data centers, like those maintained by Google, Facebook, and Amazon, have pledged to transition their sites to carbon-neutral via carbon offsetting and investment in renewable energy infrastructures like wind and solar, many of the smaller-scale data centers that I observed lack the resources and capital to pursue similar sustainability initiatives.”

• cites [12]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The material and political conditions of ICT device manufacture, and the resources required for their production, remain obscured.

“the material and political conditions of their manufacture, and the resources required for their production, remain obscured.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other scholars have recently turned to speculative fiction to help identify potential harms that could arise from computing research practices, such as the collection of huge data sets compiled from publicly accessible social media sites.

“Other scholars have recently turned to speculative fiction to help identify potential harms that could arise from computing research practices, such as the collection of huge data sets compiled from publicly accessible social media sites.”

• cites [53]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Climate Neutral Data Centre Pact, a consortium of European data center companies and infrastructure providers promising to become climate neutral by 2050, provides a model for larger-scale regulatory initiatives that could make a more substantial impact.

“larger mechanisms of accountability like the recent Climate Neutral Data Centre Pact, a consortium of European data center companies and infrastructure providers promising to become “climate neutral” by 2050, provide a model for larger-scale regulatory initiatives that could make a more substantial impact.”

• cites [38]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In vast factories like Foxconn in the Global South, where labor is cheap and legal protections scant, smartphones are assembled and shipped to consumers, only to be discarded in months and end up in e-waste graveyards like Agbogbloshie, Ghana.

“in vast factories like Foxconn located in the Global South, where labor can be procured cheaply and legal protections for workers are scant, smartphones are assembled and shipped out to consumers, only to be discarded in a matter of months, to end up in e-waste graveyards like those of Agbogbloshie, Ghana”

• cites [46]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Companies like Google are pledging to go water-positive by 2030, committing to replenish 120 percent of the water they consume in facilities and offices.

“companies like Google are pledging to go “water- positive” by 2030, committing to “replenish” 120 percent of the water they consume in their facilities and offices.”

• cites [32]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The Cloud is both cultural and technological.

“The Cloud is both cultural and technological.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Individualized responses such as digital abstinence would not be enough to mitigate the crisis; individuals' digital abstinence would not likely exert enough market influence to stop or slow the expansion of the Cloud, with its servers and redundant chains of idling equipment designed to make the digital available anytime, anywhere.

“Yet such individualized responses would not be enough to mitigate the crisis; individuals' digital abstinence would not likely exert enough market influence to stop or slow the expansion of the Cloud, with its servers and redundant chains of idling equipment designed to make the digital available anytime, anywhere.”

May combine two claims.

These metals, many toxic and containing radioactive elements, take millennia to decay.

“These metals, many of which are toxic and contain radioactive elements, take millennia to decay.”

• cites [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Unlike other industries, data centers are largely self-regulating: there is no sweeping federal agency to govern the siting and operation of new and existing facilities.

“Unlike other industries, data centers are largely self-regulating: there is no sweeping federal agency to govern the siting and operation of new and existing facilities.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Cloud is a social and cultural formation as well as a technological and material one.

“I approach the study of the Cloud holistically, taking seriously the technological and material aspects of computation and data storage, while also attending to the ways that the Cloud is a social and cultural formation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Machine learning and cryptocurrency mining are two computational processes performed by servers that are particularly energy-intensive and of increasing concern.

“there are two computational processes performed by servers that are particularly energy-intensive and are of increasing concern to scholars, activists, and data center industry professionals: 1) machine learning and 2) cryptocurrency mining.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Computation is metabolic: to maximize returns, energy inputs must match intensity, as cooling BTUs must be matched to electricity kWh to prevent thermal runaway.

“computation is metabolic: to maximize returns on computational processes, energy inputs must match intensity in the same way that tons of cooling (BTUs) must be matched to electricity curves (kwh) to prevent thermal runaway.”

May combine two claims.

The equivalent of one US dollar in Bitcoin requires over seventeen megajoules of energy to produce, double the energy required to mine copper, gold, or platinum.

“the equivalent of one US dollar in Bitcoin requires over seventeen megajoules of energy to produce, which is double the amount of energy required to mine copper, gold, or platinum.”

• cites [29]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Under grueling conditions, miners plumb the earth for rare metals required to make information and communications technology devices.

“Under grueling conditions, miners tirelessly plumb the earth for the rare metals required to make information and communications technology (ICT) devices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Media scholar Mél Hogan warns against entrusting Big Tech with its own regulation, given companies' financial ties to the fossil fuel industry and failure to meet previous pledges.

“Media scholar Mél Hogan warns against entrusting “Big Tech” with its own regulation, given the companies’ financial ties to the fossil fuel industry and failure to meet the deadlines of previous pledges to reduce carbon emissions or other kinds of waste.”

• cites [36]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

By implementing closed-loop water cooling systems, companies like Google and Cyrus One can recycle some wastewater used in evaporative cooling, though much water escapes into the atmosphere during evaporation.

“By implementing costly “closed-loop” water cooling systems, companies like Google and Cyrus One are able to recycle some of the wastewater used in evaporative cooling, though much of the water escapes into the atmosphere during the evaporative process.”

• cites [33]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For places like Iceland, with free cooling and a largely sustainable geothermal energy grid, high-performance computation is a natural fit.

“For places like Iceland, with free cooling and a largely sustainable geothermal energy grid, highperformance computation is a “natural” fit.”

• cites [26]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The shift from cooling air to cooling water is an attempt to reduce carbon footprint but comes at a cost.

“This shift from cooling air to cooling water is an attempt to reduce carbon footprint, but it comes at a cost.”

May combine two claims.

In North America, most data centers draw power from dirty electricity grids, especially in Virginia's data center alley, the site of 70 percent of the world's internet traffic in 2019.

“In North America, most data centers draw power from “dirty” electricity grids, especially in Virginia’s “data center alley,” the site of 70 percent of the world’s internet traffic in 2019.”

• cites [9]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Advances in machine learning have led to sustainability innovations in a number of industries and advanced research to support environmentalist agendas.

“advances in machine learning have led to sustainability innovations in a number of industries and have advanced research to support environmentalist agendas.”

• cites [21]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The story of the data center is as much about humans as it is about air conditioners, servers, and cables.

“the story of the data center is as much about humans as it is about air conditioners, servers, and the messy cables I spent hours untangling as part of my initiation into this niche world.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

In many data centers today, chilled water is piped through server racks to cool the facility because liquid is a superior convective agent than air.

“In many data centers today, chilled water is piped through the latticework of server racks to more efficiently cool the facility, liquid being a superior convective agent than air.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A holistic approach to environmental reforms in the data center industry requires consideration of the workplace culture and norms within data centers.

“A holistic approach to environmental reforms in the data center industry requires consideration of the workplace culture and norms within data centers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The ecological dynamics we find ourselves in are not entirely a consequence of design limits, but of human practices and choices-among individuals, communities, corporations, and governments-combined with a deficit of will and imagination to bring about a sustainable Cloud.

“The case study illustrates that the ecological dynamics we find ourselves in are not entirely a consequence of design limits, but of human practices and choices-among individuals, communities, corporations, and governments-combined with a deficit of will and imagination to bring about a sustainable Cloud.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A sustainable Cloud is achievable, so that the ecological problem is a matter of will and imagination rather than an unavoidable consequence of design limits.

May combine two claims.

Training a handful of artificial intelligence models can emit over 626,000 pounds of carbon dioxide, as much as five American automobiles do over their lifespans.

“training a handful of artificial intelligence models can emit over 626,000 pounds of carbon dioxide, as much as five American automobiles do over their lifespans.”

• cites [20]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

According to a Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report, if the entire Cloud shifted to hyperscale facilities, energy usage might drop as much as 25 percent.

“According to a Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory report, if the entire Cloud shifted to hyperscale facilities, energy usage might drop as much as 25 percent.”

• cites [13]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Google and others pledge to invest in water infrastructure and community resources to enhance water stewardship and water security.

“Google and others pledge to invest in water infrastructure and community resources to enhance “water stewardship” and “water security.””

• cites [34]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Electricity utilized by data centers accounts for 0.3 percent of overall carbon emissions; including networked devices like laptops, smartphones, and tablets, the total shifts to 2 percent of global carbon emissions.

“Today, the electricity utilized by data centers accounts for 0.3 percent of overall carbon emissions, and if we extend our accounting to include networked devices like laptops, smartphones, and tablets, the total shifts to 2 percent of global carbon emissions.”

• cites [18]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many companies, universities, and others operating small-scale data centers have begun transferring data to hyperscalers or cloud colocation facilities, citing energy cost reductions.

“many companies, universities, and others who operate their own small-scale data centers have begun to transfer their data to hyperscalers or cloud colocation facilities, citing energy cost reductions.”

May combine two claims.

Some decommissioned components have toxic polychlorinated biphenyls and must be disposed of rather than reused.

“Some of these components have toxic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and must be disposed of rather than reused.”

May combine two claims.

Heat is the waste product of computation, and if left unchecked it becomes a foil to the workings of digital civilization.

“Heat is the waste product of computation, and if left unchecked, it becomes a foil to the workings of digital civilization.”

• cites [6]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [7]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Communities in the western United States are increasingly strained for water resources.

“communities in the western United States are increasingly strained for water resources.”

May combine two claims.

Corporate pledges such as Google's water-positive pledge are not enforceable and do not appear feasible given expected explosive growth in data storage infrastructures, a tripling by some estimates.

“Corporate pledges such as these, while laudable, are not enforceable, nor do they appear to be feasible given the explosive growth expected in data storage infrastructures over the next decade, a tripling by some estimates.”

• cites [35]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Climate models anticipate cataclysmic climate futures.

“in which climate models anticipate cataclysmic climate futures”

• cites [54]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Fictions are not falsehoods but refashionings through which analysts experiment with different scenarios, trajectories, and reversals, elaborating new values and testing different possibilities for creating more just and equitable societies.

“Fictions…are not falsehoods but refashionings through which analysts experiment with different scenarios, trajectories, and reversals, elaborating new values and testing different possibilities for creating more just and equitable societies.”

• cites [52]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Environmental organizations like Greenpeace estimate that less than 16 percent of the tons of e-waste generated annually is recycled.

“environmental organizations like Greenpeace estimate that less than 16 percent of the tons of e-waste generated annually is recycled.”

• cites [50]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The survival of civilization now hinges on our collective capacities to envision and realize a sustainable future.

“The survival of civilization now hinges on our collective capacities to envision and realize a sustainable future.”

• cites [55]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The mining of cryptocurrency is a computationally intensive process with a growing ecological impact.

“the mining of cryptocurrency is a computationally intensive process with a growing ecological impact.”

• cites [23]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.