Depression Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Epidemiology, Risk Factors and Management

Rapoport, Mark J.

doi:10.2165/11599560-000000000-00000

Cited by 125Traumatic Brain Injury ResearchTraumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular DisturbancesPosttraumatic Stress Disorder Research

Depression Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Epidemiology, Risk Factors and Management

Rapoport, Mark J.·2012·CNS Drugs

DOI 10.2165/11599560-000000000-00000

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Abstract

It is important for clinicians to recognize major depression following traumatic brain injury (TBI) because of its association with poor global and psychosocial outcome, postconcussive symptoms and cognitive deficits. The purpose of this review is to provide an up-to-date selective review of the current understanding of epidemiology, risk factors and management of major depression following TBI. Many studies of prevalence of depression following TBI have not used accepted structured criteria for the diagnoses, but those that did found wide ranges of rates, from 17% to 61%. The risk factors for development of depression following TBI are poorly understood, but past psychiatric history, frontal lesions and atrophy, and family dysfunction have been shown in more than one study to play important roles. There are few controlled trials of the treatment of major depression in patients with TBI using accepted diagnostic criteria for major depression, as well as defined criteria for response and remission. As such, it is important for clinicians to use best practice guidelines for the treatment of major depression in the absence of TBI.

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ACT can be an effective treatment for ABI-related anxiety and depressive symptoms.
“Although treating these symptoms remains a challenge, evidence suggests that Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) can be an effective treatment for ABI-related anxiety and depressive symptoms (10–13).”
From Trial-based economic evaluation of the BrainACT study: acceptance and commitment therapy for anxiety and/or depressive symptoms after acquired brain injury. (2025) · cites this paper as [10]

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Evaluating Malingering in Contested Injury or Illness
Aronoff, G. M., Mandel, S. M., Genovese, E. A., Maitz, E. A., Dorto, A. J., Klimek, E. H., & Staats, T. E. (2007) · Pain Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1533-2500.2007.00126.x · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Depression following a traumatic brain injury: uncovering cytokine dysregulation as a pathogenic mechanism
Bachstetter, A. D., Bodnar, C., & Morganti, J. M. (2018) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.238604 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Repetitive Concussive Traumatic Brain Injury Interacts with Post-Injury Foot Shock Stress to Worsen Social and Depression-Like Behavior in Mice
Klemenhagen, K. C., O’Brien, S. P., & Brody, D. L. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074510 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Life after Adolescent and Adult Moderate and Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: Self-Reported Executive, Emotional, and Behavioural Function 2–5 Years after Injury
Finnanger, T. G., Olsen, A., Skandsen, T., Lydersen, S., Vik, A., Evensen, K. A. I., Catroppa, C., Haberg, A. K., Andersson, S., & Indredavik, M. S. (2015) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2015/329241 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Prevalence of suicidal behaviour following traumatic brain injury: Longitudinal follow-up data from the NIDRR Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems
Fisher, L. B., Pedrelli, P., Iverson, G. L., Bergquist, T. F., Bombardier, C. H., Hammond, F. M., Hart, T., Ketchum, J. M., Giacino, J. T., & ZAFONTE, R. D. (2016) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2016.1195517 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Peripheral immunomodulation with ginsenoside Rg1 ameliorates neuroinflammation-induced behavioral deficits in rats
Zheng, X., Liang, Y. L., An, K., Ma, S.-J., Xing, L., Zhou, Y.-Y., Dai, C., Xie, H., Xie, L., Wang, G.-J., et al. (2013) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.10.023 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Head Rotational Acceleration Characteristics Influence Behavioral and Diffusion Tensor Imaging Outcomes Following Concussion
Stemper, B. D., Shah, A. S., Pintar, F. A., McCrea, M., Kurpad, S. N., Glavaski‐Joksimovic, A., Olsen, C. M., & Budde, M. D. (2014) · Annals of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1007/s10439-014-1171-9 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Traumatic brain injury induces long-lasting changes in immune and regenerative signaling
Boone, D. R., Weisz, H. A., Willey, H. E., Torres, K. E. O., Falduto, M. T., Sinha, M., Spratt, H. M., Bolding, I. J., Johnson, K. M., Parsley, M. A., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214741 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
A home-based walking study to ameliorate perceived stress and depressive symptoms in people with a traumatic brain injury
Bellon, K., Kolakowsky‐Hayner, S. A., Wright, J., Huie, H., Toda, K., Bushnik, T. L., & Englander, J. (2014) · Brain Injury · doi:10.3109/02699052.2014.974670 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Enhanced Attention Capture by Emotional Stimuli in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Mäki-Marttunen, V., Kuusinen, V., Brause, M., Peräkylä, J., Polvivaara, M., Ribeiro, R. D. S., Öhman, J. E., & Hartikainen, K. M. (2014) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2014.3557 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Prevalence, natural course and predictors of depression 1 year following traumatic brain injury from a population-based study in New Zealand
Barker-Collo, S. L., Jones, A., Jones, K., Theadom, A., Dowell, A. C., Starkey, N. J., & Feigin, V. L. (2015) · Brain Injury · doi:10.3109/02699052.2015.1004759 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation and magnetic seizure therapy in the study and treatment of disorders related to cerebral aging
Luber, B. M., McClintock, S. M., & Lisanby, S. H. (2013) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2013.15.1/bluber · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Development and validation of a model to predict cognitive impairment in traumatic brain injury patients: a prospective observational study
Yuan, X., Xu, Q., Du, F., Gao, X., Guo, J., Zhang, J., Wu, Y., Zhou, Z., Yu, Y., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · EClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2024.103023 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Although numerous studies have explored the prognosis of TBI, including survival, depression, neuropsychiatric outcomes, and return to work, 5,6,8 there remains a notable absence of prediction models speci ﬁ cally designed to address cognitive impairments within the context of TBI prognosis.”
Comorbidity and Insurance as Predictors of Disability After Traumatic Brain Injury
Gardizi, E., Hanks, R. A., Millis, S. R., & Figueroa, M. J. (2014) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2014.06.004 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Fatigue as a Cause, Not a Consequence of Depression and Daytime Sleepiness
Schönberger, M., Herrberg, M., & Ponsford, J. L. (2013) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0b013e31829ddd08 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Rehabilitation of Moderate-to-Severe Traumatic Brain Injury
Allred, D. B., O’Rourke, J. J. F., Cifu, D. X., & Eapen, B. C. (2015) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0035-1549094 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Gender Disparities in Trauma Care
Marcolini, E. G., Albrecht, J. S., Sethuraman, K. N., & Napolitano, L. M. (2018) · Anesthesiology Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.anclin.2018.09.007 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Pathway-Focused PCR Array Profiling of Enriched Populations of Laser Capture Microdissected Hippocampal Cells after Traumatic Brain Injury
Boone, D. R., Micci, M., Taglialatela, I. G., Hellmich, J. L., Weisz, H. A., Bi, M., Prough, D. S., DeWitt, D. S., & Hellmich, H. L. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127287 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Clinical and neuropsychological correlates of major depression following post-traumatic brain injury, a prospective study
Mauri, M. C., Paletta, S., Colasanti, A., Miserocchi, G., & Altamura, A. C. (2014) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2014.07.003 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Clinical Utility of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 in the Assessment of Major Depression After Broad-Spectrum Traumatic Brain Injury
Donders, J., & Pendery, A. (2017) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2017.05.019 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Traumatic brain injury-induced submissive behavior in rats: link to depression and anxiety
Boyko, M., Gruenbaum, B. F., Shelef, I., Zvenigorodsky, V., Севериновська, О. В., Binyamin, Y., Knyazer, B., Frenkel, A., Frank, D., & Zlotnik, A. A. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-01991-1 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Even after controlling for medical, demographic, and neuropsychological factors, studies have found that depression following TBI is associated with global outcomes [17], a negative impact on social functioning [18], and lower healthrelated quality of life [19].”
BackgroundInfluential
Non-pharmacological interventions for depression in adults and children with traumatic brain injury
Gertler, P., Tate, R. L., & Cameron, I. D. (2015) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009871.pub2 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Rapoport 2012 found three studies investigating physical exercise interventions (including Hoffman 2010 identified in the current review), and three pertaining to CBT. Rapoport 2012 concluded that the evidence regarding interventions was inconclusive, and although CBT and exercise interventions…”
BackgroundInfluential
Anxiety and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Among Medicare Beneficiaries After Traumatic Brain Injury
Albrecht, J. S., Peters, M. E., Smith, G. S., & Rao, V. (2016) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000266 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Association of Alcohol With Mortality After Traumatic Brain Injury
Albrecht, J. S., Afshar, M., Stein, D. M., & Smith, G. S. (2017) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwx254 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Patterns of Depression Treatment in Medicare Beneficiaries with Depression after Traumatic Brain Injury
Albrecht, J. S., Kiptanui, Z., Tsang, Y., Khokhar, B., Smith, G. S., Zuckerman, I. H., & Simoni, J. M. (2014) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2014.3651 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Neuroimaging Correlates of Depression after Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review
Medeiros, G. C., Twose, C., Weller, A., Dougherty, J. W., Goes, F. S., Sair, H. I., Smith, G. S., & Roy, D. (2022) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2021.0374 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Psychiatric disorders associated with acquired brain pathology
Ardila, A. (2018) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2018.1463224 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Frequency of depression probably ranges from 17 to 61%, and risk factors include past psychiatric history, frontal lesions and atrophy, and family dysfunction (Rapoport, 2012).”
Background
Evidence linking microRNA suppression of essential prosurvival genes with hippocampal cell death after traumatic brain injury
Boone, D. K., Weisz, H. A., Bi, M., Falduto, M. T., Torres, K. E. O., Willey, H. E., Volsko, C. M., Kumar, A. M., Micci, M., DeWitt, D. S., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06341-6 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Preclinical Models of Traumatic Brain Injury: Emerging Role of Glutamate in the Pathophysiology of Depression
O’Neil, D. A., Nicholas, M. A., Lajud, N., Kline, A. E., & Bondi, C. O. (2018) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2018.00579 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…and pathophysiological factors, such as stress exposure (Hammen, 2005), leading to poor global and psychosocial outcome, as well as cognitive compromise (Rapoport, 2012), distinct TBI-related dysfunction in the brain may drive the manifestation of depression beyond the expected rate of emergence.”
Background
Clinical utility of the GAD-7 in identifying anxiety disorders after traumatic brain injury
Zachar-Tirado, C. N., & Donders, J. (2021) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2021.1895315 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Polytrauma transitional rehabilitation programs: Comprehensive rehabilitation for community integration after brain injury.
Duchnick, J. J., Ropacki, S., Yutsis, M. V., Petska, K. S., & Pawlowski, C. (2015) · Psychological Services · doi:10.1037/ser0000034 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Comparability of (Post-Concussion) Symptoms across Time in Individuals after Traumatic Brain Injury: Results from the CENTER-TBI Study
Rivera, D., Greving, S., Arango‐Lasprilla, J. C., von Steinbüchel, N., & Zeldovich, M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm11144090 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Research Frontiers in Traumatic Brain Injury
Gardner, A. J., Shih, S. L., Adamov, E. V., & ZAFONTE, R. D. (2017) · Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pmr.2016.12.014 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Polypharmacy and the use of medications in inpatients with acquired brain injury during post-acute rehabilitation: A cross-sectional study
Cosano, G., Giangreco, M., Ussai, S., Giorgini, T., Biasutti, E., Barbone, F., & Pisa, F. E. (2016) · Brain Injury · doi:10.3109/02699052.2015.1118767 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Approaches to Managing Executive Cognitive Functioning Impairment Following TBI: A Focus on Facilitating Community Participation
Wheeler, S. D. (2014) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/57395 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Chronic Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Aberrant Static and Dynamic Connectomic Features Identified Through Machine Learning Model Fusion
Simos, N. J., Manolitsi, K., Luppi, A. I., Kagialis, A., Antonakakis, M., Zervakis, M., Antypa, D., Kavroulakis, E., Maris, T. G., Vakis, A. F., et al. (2022) · Neuroinformatics · doi:10.1007/s12021-022-09615-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“%) compared to depression rates of 10–20% in other mTBI samples (Rapoport, 2012; Shoumitro et al., 1999).”
Result
Interactive Effect of Traumatic Brain Injury and Psychiatric Symptoms on Cognition among Late Middle-Aged Men: Findings from the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging
Kaup, A. R., Toomey, R., Bangen, K. J., Delano‐Wood, L., Yaffe, K. S., Panizzon, M. S., Lyons, M. J., Franz, C. E., & Kremen, W. S. (2018) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2018.5695 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Traumatic Brain Injury and Depression in a Community-Based Sample: A Cohort Study Across the Adult Life Span
Osborn, A. J., Mathias, J. L., Fairweather‐Schmidt, A. K., & Anstey, K. J. (2017) · Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/htr.0000000000000311 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Extracting Apathy From Depression Syndrome in Traumatic Brain Injury by Using a Clustering Method
Ubukata, S., Ueda, K., Fujimoto, G., Ueno, S., Murai, T., & Oishi, N. (2021) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21020046 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Prophylaxis Pharmacotherapy to Prevent the Onset of Post-Traumatic Brain Injury Depression: A Systematic Review
Clay, F. J., Hicks, A. J., Zaman, H., Ponsford, J. L., Batty, R. A., Perry, L. A., & Hopwood, M. (2019) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2018.6244 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Diagnosis and Treatment of Depression Following Traumatic Brain Injury
Tsaousides, T., Ashman, T. A., & Gordon, W. A. (2013) · Brain Impairment · doi:10.1017/brimp.2013.8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Psychometric properties and correlates of the PHQ-2 and PHQ-9 after traumatic brain injury
Donders, J., & Darland, K. (2017) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2017.1334962 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Characterization of the Jet-Flow Overpressure Model of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice
Shin, M., Vázquez‐Rosa, E., Cintrón-Pérez, C. J., Riegel, W. A., Harper, M. M., Ritzel, D. V., & Pieper, A. A. (2021) · Neurotrauma Reports · doi:10.1089/neur.2020.0020 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
MicroRNA profiling identifies a novel compound with antidepressant properties
Sell, S. L., Boone, D. R., Weisz, H. A., Cardenas, C., Willey, H. E., Bolding, I. J., Micci, M., Falduto, M. T., Torres, K. E. O., DeWitt, D. S., et al. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221163 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
[Effect of chitosan porous scaffolds combined with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in repair of neurological deficit after traumatic brain injury in rats].
Tan, K., Wang, X., Zhang, J., Zhuang, Z., & Dong, T. (2018) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.7507/1002-1892.201712047 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Postconcussion Syndrome and Mild Head Injury: The Role of Early Diagnosis Using Neuropsychological Tests and Functional Magnetic Resonance/Spectroscopy
Ramos-Zúñiga, R., la Torre, M. G.-D., Jiménez-Maldonado, M., Villaseñor-Cabrera, T. J., Bañuelos-Acosta, R., Aguirre-Portillo, L., Curiel, G. R., & Huerta, M. (2013) · World Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2013.09.018 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Considerations for return to work following traumatic brain injury
Little, D. M., Cook, A. J., Morissette, S. B., & Klocek, J. W. (2015) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-62627-1.00027-5 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Functional connectivity within lateral posterior parietal cortex in moderate to severe traumatic brain injury.
Venkatesan, U. M., & Hillary, F. G. (2019) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000553 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Behavioral responses following repeated bilateral frontal region closed head impacts and fear conditioning in male and female mice.
Vu, P. A., McNamara, E. H., Liu, J., Tucker, L. B., Fu, A. H., & McCabe, J. (2020) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147147 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Depression, for example, has been described in service members suffering from persistent symptoms after mTBI (Kang and Bullman, 2008; Mac Donald et al., 2014a, 2014b) and has been associated with frontal and basal forebrain damage (Fedoroff et al., 1992; Rapoport, 2012).”
Background
Neurological manifestations of encephalitic alphaviruses, traumatic brain injuries, and organophosphorus nerve agent exposure
VanderGiessen, M., de Jager, C., Leighton, J., Xie, H., Theus, M. H., Johnson, E. A., & Kehn‐Hall, K. (2024) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2024.1514940 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Effects of alcohol consumption on maxillofacial fractures in simple falls
Hino, S., Yamada, M., Iijima, Y., Araki, R., Kaneko, T., & Horie, N. (2020) · Clinical and Experimental Dental Research · doi:10.1002/cre2.308 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Patients with AC have been reported to be more likely to be injured (Rapoport, 2012; Vinson, Maclure, Reidinger, & Smith, 2003), and patients with AC have been reported to have more severe injuries than patients without AC (Jamebozorgi et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
Mild Traumatic Brain Injury: Implications for Social Work Research and Practice With Civilian and Military Populations
Moore, M. (2013) · Social work in health care · doi:10.1080/00981389.2012.714447 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Is concreteness the invisible link between altered emotional processing, impaired awareness and mourning difficulties after traumatic brain injury?
Salas, C. E., & Coetzer, R. (2015) · Neuropsychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/15294145.2015.1025819 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The relationship between neuropsychological performance and depression in patients with traumatic brain injury
Joosub, N., Cassimjee, N., & Cramer, A. (2016) · South African Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1177/0081246316654327 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Impact of Common Mental Health Disorders on Cognition: Depression and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Forensic Neuropsychology Context
Schultz, I. Z., Sepehry, A. A., & Greer, S. C. (2018) · Psychological Injury and Law · doi:10.1007/s12207-018-9322-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Association between traumatic brain injury and suicidality using a mediation approach and MarketScan
Miller, G. F., Zhou, H., Peterson, A. B., Swedo, E. A., Holland, K. M., & Kresnow, M. (2022) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/ip-2022-044697 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Neuromodulation Therapies in the Elderly Depressed Patient
Manepalli, J. N., & Sapkota, N. (2014) · Current Geriatrics Reports · doi:10.1007/s13670-014-0098-1 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Loss of smell in patients with traumatic brain injury is associated with neuropsychiatric behavioral alterations
Langdon, C., Laxe, S., Lehrer, E., Berenguer, J., Alobid, I., Quintó, L., Mariño‐Sánchez, F., Bernabeu, M., Marı́n, C., & Mullol, J. (2021) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2021.1972447 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Measuring Intolerance of Uncertainty After Acquired Brain Injury: Factor Structure, Reliability, and Validity of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale–12
Kusec, A., Murphy, F. C., Peers, P. V., & Manly, T. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231182693 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Of particular relevance to the current study is the up to fivefold increased risk of mood disorder in people with ABI compared with the general population (Ayerbe et al., 2013; Fazel et al., 2014; Rapoport, 2012).”
Background
The role of isolated diffuse axonal brain injury on post-traumatic depressive- and anxiety-like behavior in rats
Oleshko, A., Gruenbaum, B. F., Zvenigorodsky, V., Shelef, I., Negev, S., Романович, М. И., Melamed, I., Zlotnik, A. A., Frenkel, A., & Boyko, M. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03333-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Depression and anxiety, in particular, severely impact health, productivity, and quality of life, correlating with poorer global outcomes, reduced social functioning, and lower health-related quality of life, even when other factors are considered [32 – 37].”
Challenges and Supports During the Transition from High School to College for Students with Traumatic Brain Injuries
Kramer, M. M., & Davies, S. C. (2016) · Contemporary School Psychology · doi:10.1007/s40688-016-0095-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Behavioral, social, and emotional difficulties after TBIs are common, particularly with moderate and severe TBIs (Gouick & Gentleman, 2004; Gould, Ponsford, Johnston, & Schonberger, 2011; Max et al., 2012; Williams & Wood, 2010; Rapoport, 2012).”
Background
Effects of varied‑intensity endurance exercise training on oxidative and antioxidant factors in the liver of rats with valproic acid‑induced autism
Mirzavandi, F., Sabet, N., Aminzadeh, A., Heidari, M., Pouya, F. S., Moslemizadeh, A., parizi, A. S., & Bashiri, H. (2023) · Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis · doi:10.55782/ane-2023-003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Role of Mindfulness in Neurorehabilitation: From the Monastery to the Clinic
Smart, C. M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-14895-9_34 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Psychological Predictors of Neurobehavioral Symptoms in a Polytrauma Veteran Sample
Palmer, G. A., Happe, M. C., Paxson, J. M., Jurek, B. K. W., Graca, J. J., & Olson, S. A. (2015) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325024.2015.1072009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Iverson, G. L., SILVERBERG, N. D., & Zasler, N. D. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-07777-6_24 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Predictors for Depressive Mood in Geriatric Patients After Traumatic Brain Injury: A Retrospective Cross-Sectional Study
Kim, J. K., Kim, N. Y., & Kim, Y. W. (2017) · Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.5535/arm.2017.41.2.279 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
An Overview of Machine Learning Applications in Mood Disorders
Topolski, N., Jeong, S. H., & Mwangi, B. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018.017 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Characterising Long-Term Depressive Symptoms Post-brain Injury: A Systematic Review of Symptom Trajectory Groups and Their Predictors
Prince, P., Naragon‐Gainey, K., Parra, R. G. B., Weinborn, M., & Pestell, C. (2025) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-025-09674-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Moreover, risk factors have been identified that are associated with persistent depressive symptoms in adults after a brain injury including sex (Albrecht et al., 2019; Scholten et al., 2016), age (Scholten et al., 2016), and premorbid psychiatric history (Bombardier et al., 2010; Rapoport, 2012).”
Exploring causal relationship of traumatic brain injury and comorbidities: A Mendelian randomization study
Zhang, X., Wu, W., Mao, Y., Cheng, J., Zhou, Z., Tang, Y., Zhao, Q., & Yan, H. M. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease Reports · doi:10.1177/25424823241304393 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Mood Disorders
(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Traumatic Brain Injury
Eapen, B. C., & Subbarao, B. S. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05384-0_14 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Neuroimaging Studies of Effects of Psychotherapy in Depression
Bauer, I. E., & Meyer, T. D. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018.021 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Single-Item Screening for Depression in Adults (50+) with History of Traumatic Brain Injury
Rolin, S. N., & Davis, J. J. (2025) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acaf023 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Interventions for Mood-Related Issues Post Traumatic Brain Injury: Novel Treatments and Ongoing Limitations of Current Research
Brenner, L. A., Hoffberg, A. S., Shura, R. D., Bahraini, N. H., & Wortzel, H. S. (2013) · Current Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Reports · doi:10.1007/s40141-013-0022-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Electrophysiological Biomarkers for Mood Disorders
Ramakrishnan, N., Murphy, N., Selvaraj, S., & Cho, R. Y. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018.015 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Number of traumatic brain injuries and temporal associations with depression: A register‐based cohort study
Eliasen, M., Petersen, J., Benros, M. E., & Osler, M. (2021) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13347 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Safety and effectiveness of pharmacotherapy for depression in adults who have sustained a traumatic brain injury: a systematic review protocol
Clay, F. J., Perry, L. A., Hicks, A. J., Batty, R. A., Tufănaru, C., Jayaram, M., Ponsford, J. L., & Hopwood, M. (2017) · The JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports · doi:10.11124/jbisrir-2016-003326 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Treatment of Depression Following a Traumatic Brain Injury
Perna, R. B. (2015) · Journal of Psychology & Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.15406/jpcpy.2015.02.00065 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Relationship of PTSD and Alcohol Use Disorder on Anxiety and Depressive Symptomatology in Dual Diagnosis and Polytrauma Veteran Samples
Palmer, G. A., Happe, M. C., Paxson, J. M., Jurek, B. K. W., & Olson, S. A. (2015) · Military Behavioral Health · doi:10.1080/21635781.2015.1133349 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Recent research suggests higher incidents/prevalence of depression after traumatic brain injury (TBI; Jorge & Starkstein, 2005; Kreutzer, Seel, & Gourley, 2001; Rapoport, 2012).”
Background
Depression After Traumatic Brain Injury
Fisher, L. B., Thomas, G. A., Mace, R. A., & ZAFONTE, R. D. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97241-1_7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The administration of oral mucosal mesenchymal-derived stem cells improves hepatic inflammation, oxidative stress, and histopathology following traumatic brain injury
Alizadeh, E., Sabet, N., Soltani, Z., Khaksari, M., Jafari, E., & Karamouzian, S. (2023) · Transplant Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.trim.2023.101950 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The predictive role of family history of antipsychotic drug use in poor outcomes following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (aSAH)
Paavola, J., Huuskonen, T. J., zu Fraunberg, M. V. U., Koivisto, T., Kämäräinen, O., Lång, M., Lähteenvuo, M., Jääskeläinen, J. E., Huttunen, J., & Lindgren, A. (2025) · Brain and Spine · doi:10.1016/j.bas.2025.104317 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…risk of depression, anxiety, and poor functional recovery after stroke as well as traumatic brain injury, suggesting a shared genetic or psychosocial vulnerability (Tenev et al., 2009; Cheng et al., 2024; Rapoport, 2012; Torregrossa et al., 2023; Hackett et al., 2014; Stangeland et al., 2018b).”
Employment Status Among U.S. Military Veterans With Traumatic Brain Injury: Mediation Analyses and the Goal of Tertiary Prevention
Winter, L., Moriarty, H., & Robinson, K. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00190 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Brain Imaging and the Mechanisms of Antidepressant Action
Godlewska, B. R., Selvaraj, S., & Cowen, P. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018.020 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effects of Lithium on Brain Structure in Bipolar Disorder
Kaur, J., Kafantaris, V., & Szeszko, P. R. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018.018 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Functional Connectome in Bipolar Disorder
Cha, J., & Anand, A. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108623018.008 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Neuropsychiatric and behavioral sequelae
Pagulayan, K. F., & Fann, J. R. (2014) · doi:10.1002/9781118656303.ch11 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
EVENT-RELATED POTENTIAL (ERP) RESPONSES TO MUSIC AS A MEASURE OF EMOTION
Choy, T. L. (2013) · MacSphere (McMaster University) · doi:10.71548/22458 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trial-based economic evaluation of the BrainACT study: acceptance and commitment therapy for anxiety and/or depressive symptoms after acquired brain injury.
Osstyn, S., Rauwenhoff, J., Handels, R., de Vugt, M. E., Evers, S., van Mastrigt, G. A. P. G., & van Heugten, C. M. (2025) · International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care · doi:10.1017/s0266462324004811
Association of negative affect and emotional intelligence with depression among uninjured children and children post-traumatic brain injury : applicability of resilience models
Laird, N. (2015) · UTAS Research Repository · doi:10.25959/23240351
Estudo prospectivo dos aspectos neuropsicológicos e da qualidade de vida de doentes com lesão axonial difusa traumática
Paiva, W. S., & Paulo, S. (2016)
Persistent Post-Concussive Psychiatric Problems
Victoroff, J. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139696432.012

Depression After Traumatic Brain Injury
Fisher, L. B., Thomas, G. A., Mace, R. A., & ZAFONTE, R. D. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-97241-1_7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Major Depression Following Traumatic Brain Injury
Jorge, R. E., Robinson, R. G., Moser, D., Tateno, A., Crespo-Facorro, B., & Arndt, S. (2004) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.1.42 · Cited by 737 · see citing works
Diagnosing Major Depression Following Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury – Evidence-based Recommendations for Clinicians
Seel, R. T., Macciocchi, S. N., Kreutzer, J. S., Kaelin, D. L., & Katz, D. I. (2011) · European Neurological Review · doi:10.17925/enr.2011.06.01.24 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Depression and Traumatic Brain Injury
Roy‐Byrne, P. (2010) · Journal watch · doi:10.1056/jp201006070000004
Rates of Major Depressive Disorder and Clinical Outcomes Following Traumatic Brain Injury
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Authors: Rapoport, M. J.
Affiliations: Sunnybrook Health Science Centre (CA)
Corresponding author: Rapoport, Mark J.
ORCID: Rapoport, Mark J.
Venue: CNS Drugs
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2012-02
Volume: 26
Issue: 2
Pages: 111-121
ISSN: 1172-7047 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2165/11599560-000000000-00000
OpenAlex: W2035993893
Cited by: 125
References: 76
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 11
FWCI: 9.07
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: CNS Drugs (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Keywords: major depressive disorder, traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic depression, depression prevalence, risk factors, frontal lobe lesions, brain atrophy, family dysfunction, post-concussion symptoms, cognitive impairment, depression treatment, psychosocial outcomes
MeSH terms: Brain Injuries, Depressive Disorder, Humans, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Risk Factors, Disease Management

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Depression Following Traumatic Brain Injury: Epidemiology, Risk Factors and Management

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