True Lies: Perceptual Realism, Digital Images, and Film Theory

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These correspondences routinely include such variables as surface texture, color, light, shadow, reflectance, motion speed and direction.

“These correspondences, which anchor the computer-generated image in apparent three-dimensional space, routinely include such variables as surface texture, color, light, shadow, reflectance, motion speed and direction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The painted light effects in the True Lies shot are a digital manipulation so subtle that most viewers probably do not notice the trickery.

“the painted light effects in the shot are a digital manipulation so subtle that most viewers probably do not notice the trickery.”

• cites [14] 14. Jean-Louis Baudry, "Ideological Effects of the Basic Cin- ematographic Apparatus," in Narrative, Apparatus, Ide- ology, ed. Philip Rosen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 287.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The True Lies chateau image is a digital composite blending a mansion from Newport, Rhode Island, water shot in Nevada, and a digital matte painting of the Alps.

“The image is a digital composite, blending a mansion from Newport, Rhode Island, water shot in Nevada, and a digital matte painting of the Alps.”

• cites [13] 13. Noel Carroll, Philosophical Problems of Classical Film Theory (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1988).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Spielberg's dinosaurs refer to creatures that once existed, but as moving photographic images they are referentially fictional.

“Spielberg's dinosaurs obviously refer to creatures that once existed, but as moving photographic images they are referentially fictional.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The True Lies chateau shot is unnaturally luminant, with too much light distributed across the shot.

“the image is unnaturally luminant.'4Too much light is distributed across the shot.”

• cites [14] 14. Jean-Louis Baudry, "Ideological Effects of the Basic Cin- ematographic Apparatus," in Narrative, Apparatus, Ide- ology, ed. Philip Rosen (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), p. 287.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Rendering of motion can be accomplished by computer painting.

“Like lighting, the rendering of motion can be accomplished by computer painting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

No dinosaurs now live which could be filmed doing things the fictionalized creatures do in Jurassic Park.

“No dinosaurs now live which could be filmed doing things the fictionalized creatures do in Jurassic Park.”

May combine two claims.

The digital-effects artists interviewed for this essay resisted the idea that any one cue was more important than others and emphasized that their task was to build as much 3D information as possible into the CG image, given budgetary constraints, present computational limitations, and stylistic demands of a given film.

“The digitaleffects artists interviewed for this essay resisted the idea that any one cue was more important than others and instead emphasized that their task was to build as much 3D information as possible into the CG image, given budgetary constraints, present computational limitations, and the stylistic demands of a given film.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Film theory has construed realism solely as a matter of reference rather than as a matter of perception as well.

“theory has construed realism solely as a matter of reference rather than as a matter of perception as well.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Perceptually realistic images display a nested hierarchy of cues which organize the display of light, color, texture, movement, and sound in ways that correspond with the viewer's own understanding of these phenomena in daily life.

“a nested hierarchy of cues which organize the display of light, color, texture, movement, and sound in ways that correspond with the viewer's own understanding of these phenomena in daily life.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Currently, many algorithms needed for convincing movement either do not exist or are prohibitively expensive to run on today's computers.

“Currently, many of the algorithms needed for convincing movement either do not exist or are prohibitively expensive to run on today's computers.”

May combine two claims.

The tensions within film theory can be surmounted by avoiding an essentializing conception of the cinema and by employing a correspondence-based model of cinematic representation.

“The tensions within film theory can be surmounted by avoiding an essentializing conception of the cinema stressing unique, fundamental properties23 and by employing, in place of indexically based notions of film realism, a correspondence-based model of cinematic representation.”

• cites [23] 23. Robert N. Kraft, Phillip Cantor, and Charles Gottdiener, "The Coherence of Visual Narratives," Communication Re- search, vol. 18, no. 5 (October 1991), pp. 601-16; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

People constitutes a construct domain that may be sufficiently permeable to include both interpersonal and media contexts.

“'people' constitutes a construct domain that may be sufficiently permeable to include both interpersonal and [media] contexts.”

• cites [27] 27. Aimee Dorr, "How Children Make Sense of Television," in Reader in Public Opinion and Mass Communication, ed.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

While bone and joint rotation are successfully visualized, complex information about the movement of muscles and tendons below the skin surface is lacking.

“However, while bone and joint rotation are successfully visualized, complex information about the movement of muscles and tendons below the skin surface is lacking.”

May combine two claims.

Indexicality cannot furnish the basis for understanding the apparent photographic realism of these images, but a correspondence-based approach can.

“Indexicality cannot furnish us with the basis for understanding this apparent photographic realism, but a correspondencebased approach can.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Jurassic Park animators derived gait-specific rules for their dinosaurs by studying the movements of elephants, rhinos, komodo dragons, and ostriches and then making intelligent extrapolations.

“The Jurassic Park animators, for example, derived gait-specific rules for their dinosaurs by studying the movements of elephants, rhinos, komodo dragons, and ostriches and then making some intelligent extrapolations.”

May combine two claims.

Such techniques enable a successful rendering of perceptual information that can work to match live-action and computer environments and lend credence and a sense of reality to the composited image such that its computerized components seem to fulfill the indexicalized.

“Such techniques enable a successful rendering31 of perceptual information that can work to match live-action and computer environments and lend credence and a sense of reality to the composited image such that its computerized components seem to fulfill the indexicalized”

• cites [31] 31. Elizabeth M. Perse and Rebecca B. Rubin, "Attribution in Social and Parasocial Relationships," Communication Research, vol. 16, no. 1 (February 1989), pp. 59-77. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

At the perceptual level of phonemic articulation and facial register, the correspondences established are true and enable the viewer to accept the photographic and dramatic reality of the scene.

“At the perceptual level of phonemic articulation and facial register, the correspondences established are true and enable the viewer to accept the photographic and dramatic reality of the scene.”

May combine two claims.

Empirical evidence indicates that naive viewers readily recognize experientially familiar pictured objects and can comprehend filmed sequences, and that continuity editing enhances such comprehension.

“empirical evidence indicates that naive viewers readily recognize experientially familiar pictured objects and can comprehend filmed sequences, and that continuity editing enhances such comprehension.”

• cites [25] 25. See Austin S. Babrow, Barbara J. O'Keefe, David L. Swanson, Renee A. Myers, and Mary A. Murphy, "Person Perception and Children's Impression of Television and Real Peers," Communication Research, vol. 15, no. 6 (December 1988), pp. 680-98; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Credible computer animation requires the addition of motion blur to simulate the look of a photographic image.

“Credible computer animation requires the addition of motion blur to simulate the look of a photographic image.”

May combine two claims.

The dinosaurs are falsified correspondences, but because the perceptual information they contain is valid, they acquire a remarkable degree of photographic realism.

“These are falsified correspondences, yet because the perceptual information they contain is valid, the dinosaurs acquire a remarkable degree of photographic realism.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Today, indexically based notions of cinema realism exist in tension with a semiotic view of the cinema as discourse and of realism as one discourse among others.

“Today, indexically based notions of cinema realism exist in tension with a semiotic view of the cinema as discourse and of realism as one discourse among others.”

• cites [19] 19. See Uta Frith and Jocelyn E. Robson, "Perceiving the Language of Films," Perception, vol. 4 (1975), pp. 97- 103; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [20] 20. Renee Hobbs, Richard Frost, Arthur Davis, and John Stauffer, "How First-Time Viewers Comprehend Editing Conventions," Journal of Communication, no. 38 (1988), pp. 50-60; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [21] 21. Julian Hochberg and Virginia Brooks, "Picture Perception as an Unlearned Ability: A Study of One Child's Performance," American Journal of Psychology, vol. 74, no. 4 (December 1962), pp. 624-28;Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Hair is extremely difficult to render because of the complexities of mathematically simulating properties of mass and inertia for finely detailed strands.

“Hair, for example, is extremely difficult to render because of the complexities of mathematically simulating properties of mass and inertia for finely detailed strands.34”

• cites [34] 34. With respect to digital-imaging practices, rendering is distinct from the phases of model-building and animation and refers to the provision of texture, light, and color cues within a simulated environment.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Today's software can create flexors and rotators but cannot yet control veins or muscles.

“Chris Voellmann points out that today's software can create flexors and rotators but cannot yet control veins or muscles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Capturing the expressive properties of movement is the most difficult level; human and animal movement cannot look mechanical and be convincing, but must be expressive of mood and affect.

“Beyond these two levels of information control is the most difficult one-capturing the expressive properties of movement.Human and animal movement cannot look mechanical and be convincing; it must be expressive of mood and affect.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Providing information about surface texture and movement is extremely important and difficult because the information must seem credible.

“To complete this anchoring process, the provision of information about surface texture and movement is extremely important and quite difficult, because the information provided must seem credible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A correspondence-based model will enable us to talk and think about both photographic images and computer-generated images and about the ways that cinema can create images that seem alternately real and unreal.

“Such a model will enable us to talk and think about both photographic images and computer-generated images and about the ways that cinema can create images that seem alternately real and unreal.”

May combine two claims.

The digital-effects artist used facial cues to animate Kennedy's image and sync his mouth movements with the scripted dialogue.

“The digital-effects artist used these facial cues to animate Kennedy's image and sync his mouth movements with the scripted dialogue.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Light, texture, and movement are among the most important cues to be manipulated in order to create a synthetic reality that looks as real as possible.

“light, texture, and movement are among the most important cues to be manipulated in order to create a synthetic reality that looks as real as possible.”

• cites [29] 29. Cynthia Hoffner and Joanne Cantor, "Developmental Differences in Response to a Television Character's Appearance and Behavior," De- velopmental Psychology, vol. 21, no. 6 (1985), pp. 1065- 74; sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Reflections of the velociraptors on metal surfaces in Jurassic Park anchor the creatures in Cartesian space and perceptual reality and provide a bridge between live-action and computer-generated environments.

“When the velociraptors hunt the children inside the park's kitchen in the climax of Jurassic Park, the film's viewer sees their movements reflected on the gleaming metal surfaces of tables and cookware.These reflections anchor the creatures inside Cartesian space and perceptual reality and provide a bridge between live-action and computer-generated environments.”

May combine two claims.

The animators and renderers at Industrial Light and Magic used innovative software to texture-map skin and wrinkles onto their dinosaurs and calibrated variations in skin jostling and wrinkling with particular movements of the creatures.

“The animators and renderers at Industrial Light and Magic used innovative software to texture-map32 skin and wrinkles onto their dinosaurs and calibrated variations in skin jostling and wrinkling with particular movements of the creatures.”

• cites [32] 32. I am indebted to Carl Plantinga for clarification of some of these distinctions. 29. Telephone interviews with the author, October 25, 1994.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The reliability or nonreliability of the perceptual information these images contain furnishes the viewer with an important framework for evaluating the logic of the screen worlds these images help establish.

“The reliability or nonreliability of the perceptual information they contain furnishes the viewer with an important framework for evaluating the logic of the screen worlds these images help establish.”

May combine two claims.

Stressing correspondence-based transformational abilities enables us to maintain a link between the materials to be digitally transformed and their changed state, and provides a means for preserving a basis for concepts of realism in a digitized cinema.

“Stressing correspondence-based transformational abilities enables us to maintain a link, a relationship, between the materials that are to be digitally transformed (elements of the 3D world) and their changed state, as well as providing a means for preserving a basis for concepts of realism in a digitized cinema.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These areas of correspondence coexist in any given film with narrative, formal, and generic conventions, as well as intertextual determinants of meaning.

“These areas of correspondence coexist in any given film with narrative, formal, and generic conventions, as well as intertextual determinants of meaning.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The creative manipulation of photographic images is as old as the medium of photography.

“The creative manipulation of photographic images is, of course, as old as the medium of photography.”

May combine two claims.

The resulting image is perceptually realistic but referentially unreal, a paradox that present film theory has a hard time accounting for.

“The resulting image is perceptually realistic but referen-tially unreal, a paradox that present film theory has a hard time accounting for.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Perceptual realism furnishes the basis on which digital imaging may be carried out by effects artists and understood, evaluated, and interpreted by viewers.

“Perceptual realism furnishes the basis on which digital imaging may be carried out by effects artists and understood, evaluated, and interpreted by viewers.”

May combine two claims.

If neither a camera nor an existent referent is necessary for the digital rendition of photographic reality, the application of internally valid perceptual correspondences with the 3D world is necessary for establishing the credibility of the synthetic reality.

“If neither a camera nor an existent referent is necessary for the digital rendition of photographic reality, the application of internally valid perceptual correspondences with the 3D world is necessary for establishing the credibility of the synthetic reality.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In the correspondence-based approach, perceptual realism (the accurate replication of valid 3D cues) becomes not only the glue cementing digitally created and live-action environments, but also the foundation upon which the uniquely transformational functions of cinema exist.

“In the correspondence-based approach to cinematic representation developed here, perceptual realism, the accurate replication of valid 3D cues, becomes not only the glue cementing digitally created and live-action environments, but also the foundation upon which the uniquely transformational functions of cinema exist.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Unreal images have never before seemed so real.

“Unreal images have never before seemed so real.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Kevin Mack pointed out that style coexists with the capability for making the CG images look as real as possible.

“With respect to the latter, Kevin Mack pointed out that style coexists with the capability for making the CG images look as real as possible.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Swiss chateau composite in True Lies exemplifies the tension between style and making CG images look as real as possible.

“The Swiss chateau composite in True Lies discussed earlier exemplifies this tension.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

To date, film theory has tended to minimize the importance of perceptual correspondences, but the advent of digital imaging demonstrates how important they are and have been all along.

“To date, theory has tended to minimize the importance of perceptual correspondences, but the advent of digital imaging demonstrates how important they are and have been all along.”

May combine two claims.

The resulting images may not contain photographable events, but neither do they represent purely illusory constructions.

“The resulting images may not contain photographable events, but neither do they represent purely illusory constructions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The digital replication of perceptual correspondence for the film viewer is an enormously complex undertaking and its ramifications extend beyond film theory and aesthetics to encompass ethical, legal, and social issues.

“The digital replication of perceptual correspondence for the film viewer is an enormously complex undertaking and its ramifications clearly extend well beyond film theory and aesthetics to encompass ethical, legal, and social issues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Digital imaging represents not only a new domain of cinema experiences, but a new threshold for theory as well.

“Digital imaging represents not only the new domain of cinema experiences, but a new threshold for theory as well.”

May combine two claims.

Cinema does both indexically record the world and stylistically transfigure it.

“It is not as if cinema either indexically records the world or stylistically transfigures it.Cinema does both.”