Science as Social Knowledge: Values and Objectivity in Scientific Inquiry
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Criticisms about non-Gaussian neural dynamics from neurophysiologists can be deflected by computational theorists highlighting mathematical elegance, while concerns about mechanistic implementation from cellular neuroscientists can be dismissed by philosophers emphasizing unifying conceptual power.
“Criticisms about non-Gaussian neural dynamics from neurophysiologists can be deflected by computational theorists highlighting the framework’s mathematical elegance, while concerns about mechanistic implementation from cellular neuroscientists can be dismissed by philosophers emphasizing its unifying conceptual power (Longino 2020).”
From The myth of the Bayesian brain (2025) · cites this paper as Longino 2020
Scientific practices are shaped by evidence and by social and institutional factors that influence research funding, publication, and recognition.
“Scientific practices are shaped by evidence and social and institutional factors that influence research funding, publication, and recognition (Latour 1987; Longino 2020).”
From The myth of the Bayesian brain (2025) · cites this paper as Longino 2020
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Feminist Methodology: New Applications in the Academy and Public Policy
Fonow, M. M., & Cook, J. Α. (2005) · Signs · doi:10.1086/428417 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Heesen, R., & Bright, L. (2020) · British Journal for the Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1093/bjps/axz029 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Cancian, F. M. (1992) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/089124392006004006 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Demarginalizing Standpoint Epistemology
Toole, B. (2020) · Episteme · doi:10.1017/epi.2020.8 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“…other feminist epistemologists (in particular, feminist empiricists) investigated the influence of gendered (or racialized) norms, expectations, and experiences on the production of knowledge, particularly in scientific inquiry (Longino 1990; Anderson 1995; Kukla and Ruetsche 2002; Rolin 2016).”
BackgroundHow to choose your research organism
Dietrich, M. R., Ankeny, R. A., Crowe, N., Green, S., & Leonelli, S. (2019) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2019.101227 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Some of these criteria, such as simplicity, are considered epistemic by some philosophers (Laudan, 1986) and social by some sociologists (e.g., Bloor, 1981), although others have attempted to break down those distinctions (e.g., Longino, 1990; Solomon, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodA Taxonomy of Transparency in Science
Elliott, K. C. (2020) · Canadian Journal of Philosophy · doi:10.1017/can.2020.21 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“…is valueladen in numerous ways; value judgments are incorporated in the questions that scientists ask, in the assumptions and study designs they employ, in the amounts of evidence they demand, and in the ways they frame and communicate their findings (Douglas 2009; Elliott 2017; Longino 1990).”
BackgroundWard, Z. B. (2020) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2020.09.006 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Peter, F. (2008) · Episteme · doi:10.3366/e1742360008000221 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Diamond, L. M. (2006) · Signs · doi:10.1086/491684 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Bias in science: natural and social
May, J. (2020) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-020-02937-0 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Many philosophers of science have argued that values in science are inevitable and aren’t inherently problematic (e.g. Longino 1990; Kitcher 2001).”
BackgroundCritical Realism: A Critical Evaluation
Zhang, T. (2022) · Social Epistemology · doi:10.1080/02691728.2022.2080127 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“For example, Longino (2020) emphasizes the role of institutions, Zhang (2022) argues for the fundamental importance of worldviews, and Romer (1990) identifies economic needs as the driving force.”
BackgroundValue-entanglement and the integrity of scientific research
Resnik, D. B., & Elliott, K. C. (2019) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2018.12.011 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
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“a separate skill but appropriate the argumentative practices of their fields (Longino, 1990).”
BackgroundValue pluralism in research integrity
Peels, R., de Ridder, J., Haven, T. L., & Bouter, L. M. (2019) · Research Integrity and Peer Review · doi:10.1186/s41073-019-0076-4 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
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“Furthermore, as already noted, feminist philosophers of science have argued that minorities may articulate hypotheses that represent epistemically valuable perspectives (Longino 1990, 2002; Harding 1991).”
BackgroundArtificial intelligence, complexity, and systemic resilience in global governance
Ilcic, A. A., Fuentes, M., & Lawler, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2025.1562095 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Krasadakis, G. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-45139-4_4 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
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Abbot, D., Bikfalvi, A., Bleske-Rechek, A. L., Bodmer, W. F., Boghossian, P., Carvalho, C. M., Ciccolini, J., Coyne, J. A., Gauss, J., Gill, P. M. W., et al. (2023) · Journal of Controversial Ideas · doi:10.35995/jci03010001 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
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“Diversity with respect to gender, class, race and ethnicity can boost the reliability of research by exposing, eliminating or balancing biases and prejudices (Keller 1985; Longino 1990; Nielsen et al. 2017). of tutors in deliberative polling.”
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John, S. D. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009063647 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
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“…view of objectivity does not amount to mere replicability of the unsupervised analysis or to a mechanical control of the researcher’s judgments (cf. Daston and Galison 1992) but rather has parallels with analyses of objectivity as being grounded in interactive debate (Douglas 2004; Longino 1990).”
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“In the philosophy of science, several frameworks have been suggested for how values influence the scientific process (Longino, 1990; Lacey 1999; Douglas, 2009; 2016).”
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“Thus, the greater the diversity of colleagues formulating objections, the most likely it is that potential biases will be corrected and a greater degree of objectivity will be achieved (Longino, 1990/2020).”
BackgroundOn the evidentiary standards for nutrition advice
Jukola, S. (2018) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2018.05.007 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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“…recently emphasized a wide range of ways in which scientific research is ‘value-laden’, in the sense that scientists make numerous choices or judgements that are not settled by the available evidence, but that can support particular social or ethical values (Longino 1990, Lacey 1999, Douglas 2009).”
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“On the role of sociopolitical or non-epistemic values in problem choice, vis-à-vis theory appraisal, see Longino (1990); Elliott and McKaughan (2009) (cf. Dorato, 2004); Douglas (2009).”
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“…to say that my argument based on the evidential account should be acceptable for the proponents of the value-free ideal (such as Jeffrey 1956; Levi 1960; Lacey 1999) and its opponents (for instance, Rudner 1953; Longino 1990; Douglas 2000; Wilholt 2009; Kitcher 2011; Biddle and Leuschner 2015).”
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“And thus, the representation of knowledge must be consistent according to the basic principles of knowledge: knowledge is socially distributed, knowledge is socially produced, no one culture has the monopoly of knowledge, and knowledge evolves from all cultures (Boyer & Baptiste, 1996; Longino, 1990).”
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“However, it has been shown that, in practice, scientists inevitably make choices on the basis of ethical beliefs, their perception of the social good derived from those beliefs, and other value judgements [31, 86, 66].”
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Henschen, T. (2021) · European Journal for Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1007/s13194-021-00409-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Let me name one of these arguments: an argument that Longino has developed in a series of books and papers (especially in Longino, 1990), i.e. the argument from empirical underdetermination (AEU).”
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“According to classic (e.g., Fleck, 1935; Kuhn, 1962, 1990; Platt, 1964) and more recent (e.g., Longino, 2020; see Oreskes, 2019, for an overview) epistemological approaches, the cumulative development of knowledge by scienti fi c means is viewed as an inherently social process.”
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“According to a postpositivist view of inquiry, the sort of individual biases that concern van der Vossen are best evaluated and handled at the level of epistemic communities (Longino 1990).”
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“Scientific practices are shaped by evidence and social and institutional factors that influence research funding, publication, and recognition (Latour 1987; Longino 2020).”
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“Scientific evidence rests on objectivity, as contested a definition this concept may invite (Longino, 1990; Needham, 2020).”
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“This is the underdetermination thesis: Theories are underdetermined by the data (see e.g. Longino, 1990).”
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Franco, P. L. (2019) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2019.03.005 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mishra, A., Lee, H., Jeoung, S., Torvik, V. I., & Diesner, J. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0316890 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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“Constructing scientific knowledge involves negotiating among various ideas contributed by members of a community (Longino, 2020).”
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Muszynski, E., & Malaterre, C. (2020) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-020-02856-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“This implies that both the production and the evaluation of scientific knowledge are inextricably linked to values other than those traditionally attributed to objective knowledge about the world (e.g. Longino 1990, 2002; Dupré 2007; Douglas 2007, 2009).”
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Harner, V. (2022) · Affilia · doi:10.1177/08861099221144277 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
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“Positivist assertions of neutrality are often value-implicit, concealing normative assumptions, whereas values-explicit approaches emphasise reflexive transparency around positionality, ethical commitments, and societal impacts [9, 10].”
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“They evaluate, for instance, the legal system (Laudan 2006), Wikipedia (Fallis 2008), the education system (Kotzee 2013), medicine (Bluhm and Borgerson 2019) and, quite extensively, academic science (Longino 1990).”
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“Through historical casework and philosophical analysis, social epistemology has affirmed the value of dialectic among multiple perspectives (Harding 1 3 1991; Longino 1990, 2001; Solomon 2001).”
Hacia un análisis de los marcos epistémicos del big data
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O’Connor, C., & Freeborn, D. (2025) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1017/psa.2025.1 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Kitcher, P. (2018) · European Journal for Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1007/s13194-018-0227-3 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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“complex systems in the world (natural, social and artificial) (Mainzer [1994] 2007; Mitchell 2009), both structural and dynamic (Bertuglia and Vaio 2005), can play a role in favor of methodological approaches based on pragmatism or pluralism (or”
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Dang, H. (2023) · Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1017/psa.2023.164 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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“…of epistemic authority from communities to algorithmic systems (Mittelstadt et al. 2016), mitigating risks of injustice and misrep-resentation (Fricker 2017 ) and fostering pluralistic knowledge validation (Longino 2020), especially as phronesis is not “computationally tractable” (Gerdes 2016:181).”
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“Pluralistic ideas reach from arguments for pluralism as methodological choice against bias in science (Longino 1990) to metaphysical statements about the ‘‘dappled’’ state of the world (Cartwright 1999).”
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Millstein, R. L. (2020) · Biology & Philosophy · doi:10.1007/s10539-019-9724-9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The process might be similar to the one that Helen Longino (1990) describes for balancing competing values in science, notably including a diversity of perspectives.”
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“However, as an approach to conducting research and exchanging knowledge, CMs, just like any other methods, are embedded into human value systems that influence how they are used to produce knowledge, and how that knowledge will be applied (or not applied) in practice (Harré, 1981; Longino, 1990).”
MethodSera‐Shriar, E. (2021) · Aries · doi:10.1163/15700593-02201003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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“An important difference would be to remember that the fact that something “works” does not necessarily mean it is “true” (Longino, 1990).”
BackgroundFuselier, L., McFadden, J., & King, K. R. (2019) · Science & Education · doi:10.1007/s11191-019-00084-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“There is no single conception of science but, in general, contemporary philosophers of science acknowledge that social, political, cultural, and economic forces influence scientific knowledge production (e.g., Haraway 1988; Harding 1986, 1991; Longino 1990; Solomon 2008; Wylie et al. 2007).”
BackgroundThe Precautionary Principle and Expert Disagreement
Elkin, L. (2021) · Erkenntnis · doi:10.1007/s10670-021-00457-y · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Under certain conditions, disagreement can improve the accuracy of collective judgments via the ‘wisdom of crowds’ (Surowiecki, 2005), promote different perspectives (Harding, 1991; Longino, 1990), and prompt reflective evaluation resulting in epistemic humility (Elga, 2007).”
BackgroundEpistemological and ethical aspects of time in scientific research
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Miragoli, M. (2025) · Philosophical Studies · doi:10.1007/s11098-025-02411-y · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Negative Capability May Solve Psychiatry’s Credibility Crisis
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“Philosophically, negative capability requires accepting that knowledge is provisional, context-dependent, and inherently limited (Longino, 2020).”
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dos Reis, C. R. M., & Pillar, V. D. (2019) · Principia an international journal of epistemology · doi:10.5007/1808-1711.2018v22n3p461 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Against separation: the importance of transdisciplinary collaboration in climate action
Paiusco, E., & Boem, F. (2025) · Environmental Politics · doi:10.1080/09644016.2025.2466242 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
A critical examination of "expert-like" in physics education research
Phillips, A. M., & O’Donnell, C. (2021) · Physics Education Research Conference (PERC) · doi:10.1119/perc.2021.pr.phillips · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Surgical Caps and Trouble with Evidence
Jukola, S., & Bondio, M. G. (2023) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003273509-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- LONGINO, H. E.
- Corresponding author
- LONGINO, HELEN E.
- ORCID
- LONGINO, HELEN E.
- Venue
- Princeton University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Princeton University Press
- Published
- 2020-03-31
- OpenAlex
- W3204459366
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 6 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 28.53
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Princeton University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy, Science, and History
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Education, Politics, and Culture Studies
- Keywords
- philosophy of science, sociology of science, scientific knowledge, epistemology of science
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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