Relationship of Fetal Macrosomia to Maternal Postprandial Glucose Control During Pregnancy

Combs, C Andrew; Gunderson, Erica; Kitzmiller, John L; Gavin, Laurence A; Main, Elliot K

doi:10.2337/diacare.15.10.1251

Cited by 315Gestational Diabetes Research and ManagementDiabetes Management and ResearchBirth, Development, and Health

Relationship of Fetal Macrosomia to Maternal Postprandial Glucose Control During Pregnancy

Combs, C Andrew, Gunderson, Erica, Kitzmiller, John L, Gavin, Laurence A, Main, Elliot K·1992·Diabetes Care

DOI 10.2337/diacare.15.10.1251

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To determine the gestational ages at which maternal hyperglycemia is most closely related to fetal macrosomia; to determine whether macrosomia is related to elevations of fasting glucose, postprandial glucose, or both; and to assess the relationship of macrosomia to maternal insulin dose and caloric intake. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: One hundred eleven consecutive pregnant women with Class B through RF diabetes were studied longitudinally from 13 to 36 wk gestation. Macrosomia was defined by birthweight greater than 90th percentile for gestational age based on California norms. Women who delivered macrosomic infants were compared with those without macrosomic infants on pre- and postprandial blood glucose, GHb, insulin dose, macronutrient intake, and several other maternal variables. RESULTS: Macrosomia occurred in 32 (29%) cases, although several measures indicated reasonable glycemic control throughout pregnancy. Women delivering macrosomic infants did not differ from those without macrosomic infants in maternal age, prepregnant weight, duration of diabetes, White class, macronutrient intake, GHb, or fasting glucose. Macrosomia was associated with higher postprandial glucose levels up to 32 wk gestation and lower insulin doses from 29 to 36 wk gestation. In multiple logistic regression, macrosomia was significantly associated with postprandial glucose only between 29 and 32 wk gestation. Postprandial glucose values less than 7.3 mM (less than 130 mg/dl) were associated with a higher risk of small-for-gestational-age infants (18%) compared with values above this level (1%). CONCLUSIONS: Because macrosomia was related to postprandial glucose but not fasting glucose, we conclude that postprandial glucose measurement should be a part of routine care for diabetes in pregnancy. A target 1-h postprandial glucose value of 7.3 mM (130 mg/dl) may be the level that optimally reduces the incidence of macrosomia without increasing the incidence of small-for-gestational-age infants.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.2337/diacare.15.10.1251

Cites

24 of 24 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Hypoglycemia in pregnancy may increase the risk of low birth weight.
“The A1C goal in a given individual should be achieved without hypoglycemia, which, in addition to the usual adverse sequelae, may increase the risk of low birth weight (47,48).”
From 15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2024 (2024) · cites this paper as [47]

Fetal growth and perinatal viability in California.
Williams, R. L., Creasy, R. K., Cunningham, G. C., Hawes, W. E., Norris, F. D., & Tashiro, M. (1982) · PubMed · Cited by 807 · see citing works
WEIGHT AND LENGTH AT BIRTH OF INFANTS OF DIABETIC MOTHERS
Pedersen, J. (1954) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/acta.0.0160330 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Preconception Care of Diabetes
Kitzmiller, J. L. (1991) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1991.03460060063025 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Self-citation
Glycemic control in gestational diabetes mellitus--how tight is tight enough: small for gestational age versus large for gestational age?
Langer, O., Levy, J., Brustman, L., Anyaegbunam, A., Merkatz, R., & Divon, M. (1989) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/0002-9378(89)90371-2 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
Maternal postprandial glucose levels and infant birth weight: The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study
Jovanovic‐Peterson, L., Peterson, C. M., Reed, G. P., Metzger, B., Mills, J. L., Knopp, R., & Aarons, J. H. (1991) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1016/0020-7292(91)90499-u · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Transplacental Passage of Insulin in Pregnant Women with Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Menon, R. K., Cohen, R. M., Sperling, M. A., Cutfield, W. S., Mimouni, F. B., & Khoury, J. C. (1990) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199008023230505 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Factors associated with rectal injury in spontaneous deliveries.
Green, & Sl, S. (1989) · PubMed · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Relationship between neonatal birth weight and maternal plasma amino acid profiles in lean and obese nondiabetic women and in type I diabetic pregnant women
Kalkhoff, R. K., Kandaraki, E., Morrow, P. G., Mitchell, T. H., Kelber, S. T., & Borkowf, H. I. (1988) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/0026-0495(88)90101-1 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Age-dependent Insulin Secretion of the Endocrine Pancreas In Vitro from Fetuses of Diabetic and Nondiabetic Patients
Reiher, H., Fuhrmann, K., Noack, S., Woltanski, K.-P., Jutzi, E., von Dorsche, H. H., & Hahn, H.-J. (1983) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.6.5.446 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Macrosomia in Infants of Insulin-Dependent Diabetic Mothers
Berk, M. A., Mimouni, F. B., Miodovnik, M., Hertzberg, V., & Valuck, J. (1989) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.83.6.1029 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Macrosomia in Pregnancy Complicated by Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
SMALL, M. P., Cameron, A., LUNAN, C. B., & MacCuish, A. C. (1987) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.10.5.594 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Glucose threshold for macrosomia in pregnancy complicated by diabetes
Willman, S. P., Leveno, K. J., Guzick, D. S., Williams, M., & Whalley, P. J. (1986) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/0002-9378(86)90692-7 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
MACROSOMIA DESPITE WELL-CONTROLLED DIABETIC PREGNANCY
Dandona, P., Besterman, H. S., Freedman, D. B., Boag, F., Taylor, A. M., & Beckett, A. G. (1984) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(84)92248-7 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Good diabetic control early in pregnancy and favorable fetal outcome
Lin, C. C., River, J., River, P., BLIX, P. M., & Moawad, A. H. (1986) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1016/0020-7292(86)90182-7 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
4 Spontaneous abortion and congenital malformations in diabetes
Combs, C. A., & Kitzmiller, J. L. (1991) · Baillière s Clinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology · doi:10.1016/s0950-3552(05)80100-2 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citation
Umbilical Cord Glycosylated Hemoglobin in Infants of Diabetic Mothers: Relationships to Neonatal Hypoglycemia, Macrosomia, and Cord Serum C-Peptide
Sosenko, J. M., Kitzmiller, J. L., Flückiger, R., Loo, S., Younger, D., & Gabbay, K. H. (1982) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.5.6.566 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citation
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ABNORMAL GLUCOSE TOLERANCE (HYPERGLYCAEMIA AND HYPOGLYCAEMIA) IN PREGNANCY*
Abell, D. A. (1979) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1979.tb10596.x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
The effect of plasma glucose variability on neonatal outcome in the pregnant diabetic patient
Artai, R., Golde, S. H., Dorey, F. J., McClellan, S. N., Gratacos, J. A., Lirette, T., Montoro, M., Wu, P. Y. K., Anderson, B., & Mestman, J. H. (1983) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/0002-9378(83)90012-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Prenatal assessment of fetal outcome by amniotic fluid C-peptide levels in pregnant diabetic women
Lin, C.-C., River, P., Moawad, A. H., Lowensohn, R. I., BLIX, P. M., Abraham, M., & Rubenstein, A. H. (1981) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/s0002-9378(15)33309-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The influence of maternal weight, smoking, vascular complications and glucose regulation on the birth weight of infants of type 1 diabetic women
Madsen, H., & Ditzel, J. (1991) · European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology · doi:10.1016/0028-2243(91)90054-o · Cited by 22 · see citing works
A longitudinal study comparing growth in diabetic pregnancies with growth in normal gestations: I. The fetal weight.
Reece, E. A., Smikle, C., O'Connor, T., Holford, T., Nelson-Robinson, L., DeGennaro, N. J., & Hobbins, J. C. (1990) · PubMed · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Relationship between fetal growth and maternal fructosamine in diabetic pregnancy
Roberts, A. B., & Baker, J. R. (1988) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1016/0020-7292(88)90365-7 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Relationship of Maternal Glycosylated Hemoglobin and Fetal Beta-Cell Activity with Birth Weight
Cano, A., Barceló, F., Fuente, T., Martinez, P., Parrilla, J. J., & Abad, L. (2010) · Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigation · doi:10.1159/000298897 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Human versus animal insulin in the management of insulin-dependent diabetes: lack of effect on fetal growth.
Rosenn, B., Miodovnik, M., Combs, C. A., Williams, T., Wittekind, C., & Ta, S. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citation

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Practice Bulletin No. 183: postpartum hemorrhage
(2017) · Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000002351 · Cited by 1,406 · see citing works
Evidence-based nutrition principles and recommendations for the treatment and prevention of diabetes and related complications
Franz, M. J., Bantle, J. P., Beebe, C. A., Brunzell, J. D., Chiasson, J.-L., Garg, A., Holzmeister, L. A., Hoogwerf, B., Mayer-Davis, E., Mooradian, A. D., et al. (2002) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.25.1.148 · Cited by 1,165 · see citing works
The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) Initiative on gestational diabetes mellitus: A pragmatic guide for diagnosis, management, and care #
Hod, M., Kapur, A., Sacks, D. A., Hadar, E., Agarwal, M., Di Renzo, G. C., Roura, L. C., McIntyre, H. D., Morris, J. L., & Divakar, H. (2015) · International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics · doi:10.1016/s0020-7292(15)30033-3 · Cited by 767 · see citing works
Postprandial versus Preprandial Blood Glucose Monitoring in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Requiring Insulin Therapy
de Veciana, M., Major, C. A., Morgan, M. A., Asrat, T., Toohey, J. S., Lien, J. M., & Evans, A. T. (1995) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199511093331901 · Cited by 666 · see citing works
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Kjos, S. L., & Buchanan, T. A. (1999) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199912023412307 · Cited by 541 · see citing works
15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2022
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee (2022) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc22-s015 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Managing preexisting diabetes for pregnancy
Kitzmiller, J. L., Block, J. M., Brown, F. M., Catalano, P. M., Conway, D. L., Coustan, D. R., Gunderson, E. P., Herman, W. H., Hoffman, L. D., Inturrisi, M., et al. (2008) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc08-9020 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Self-citation
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 201: Pregestational Diabetes Mellitus
(2018) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000002960 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Jovanovic, L. (2001) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.286.20.2516 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
14. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2020
American Diabetes Association (2019) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc20-s014 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Diabetes and Pregnancy
Thompson, D. M., Berger, H. M., Feig, D. S., Gagnon, R. J., Kader, T., Keely, E., Kozak, S. E., Ryan, E. A., Sermer, M., & Vinokuroff, C. (2013) · Canadian Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2013.01.044 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
Effectiveness of continuous glucose monitoring in pregnant women with diabetes: randomised clinical trial
Murphy, H. R., Rayman, G., Lewis, K., Kelly, S., Johal, B., Duffield, K., Fowler, D., Campbell, P. J., & Temple, R. C. (2008) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.a1680 · Cited by 358 · see citing works
Diabetes and Pregnancy
Feig, D. S., Berger, H., Donovan, L., Godbout, A., Kader, T., Keely, E., & Sanghera, R. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2017.10.038 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Diabetes during Pregnancy: A Maternal Disease Complicating the Course of Pregnancy with Long-Term Deleterious Effects on the Offspring. A Clinical Review
Ornoy, A., Becker, M., Weinstein‐Fudim, L., & Ergaz, Z. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22062965 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2023
ElSayed, N. A., Aleppo, G., Aroda, V. R., Bannuru, R. R., Brown, F. M., Bruemmer, D., Collins, B. S., Hilliard, M. E., Isaacs, D. M., Johnson, E. L., et al. (2022) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc23-s015 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
14. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2021
American Diabetes Association (2020) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc21-s014 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
14. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2019
American Diabetes Association (2018) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc19-s014 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Are we optimizing gestational diabetes treatment with glyburide? The pharmacologic basis for better clinical practice
Hebert, M., Ma, X., Naraharisetti, S., Krudys, K., Umans, J., Hankins, G., Caritis, S., Miodovnik, M., Mattison, D., Unadkat, J., et al. (2009) · Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1038/clpt.2009.5 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2025
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee, ElSayed, N. A., McCoy, R. G., Aleppo, G., Balapattabi, K., Beverly, E. A., Briggs Early, K., Bruemmer, D., Echouffo-Tcheugui, J. B., Ekhlaspour, L., et al. (2025) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc25-s015 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
The omniscient placenta: Metabolic and epigenetic regulation of fetal programming
Nugent, B. M., & Bale, T. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.09.001 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2024
American Diabetes Association Professional Practice Committee, ElSayed, N. A., Aleppo, G., Bannuru, R. R., Bruemmer, D., Collins, B. S., Ekhlaspour, L., Hilliard, M. E., Johnson, E. L., Khunti, K., et al. (2024) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc24-s015 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Effect of a low-glycemic-index diet during pregnancy on obstetric outcomes
Moses, R. G., Luebcke, M., Davis, W. S., Coleman, K. J., Tapsell, L. C., Petocz, P., & Brand-Miller, J. C. (2006) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/84.4.807 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Maternal Glucose Concentration Influences Fetal Growth, Gestation, and Pregnancy Complications
Scholl, T. O., Sowers, M., Chen, X., & Lenders, C. M. (2001) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/154.6.514 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
The Effects of Carbohydrate Restriction in Patients With Diet-Controlled Gestational Diabetes
Major, C. (1998) · Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1016/s0029-7844(98)00003-9 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Multicenter, placebo-controlled trial comparing acarbose (BAY g 5421) with placebo, tolbutamide, and tolbutamide-plus-acarbose in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
Coniff, R. F., Shapiro, J. A., Seaton, T. B., & Bray, G. A. (1995) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0002-9343(99)80343-x · Cited by 180 · see citing works
Maternal macronutrient and energy intakes in pregnancy and offspring intake at 10 y: exploring parental comparisons and prenatal effects
Brion, M., Ness, A., Rogers, I., Emmett, P. M., Cribb, V., Smith, G. D., & Lawlor, D. A. (2010) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.28623 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Glycemic targets in the second and third trimester of pregnancy for women with type 1 diabetes
Maresh, M. J. A., Holmes, V. A., Patterson, C. C., Young, I. S., Pearson, D. W. M., Walker, J. D., & McCance, D. R. (2015) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc14-1755 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Patterns of Glycemia in Normal Pregnancy
Hernandez, T. L., Friedman, J. E., Van Pelt, R. E., & Barbour, L. A. (2011) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc11-0241 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in Kashmiri women from the Indian subcontinent
Zargar, A. H., Sheikh, M. I., Bashir, M. I., Masoodi, S. R., Laway, B. A., Wani, A. I., Bhat, M. H., & Dar, F. A. (2004) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2004.02.023 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Maternal carbohydrate metabolism and its relationship fetal growth and body composition
Catalano, P. M., Drago, N. M., & Amini, S. B. (1995) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/0002-9378(95)90479-4 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Diabetes Alters the Expression and Activity of the Human Placental GLUT1 Glucose Transporter1
Gaither, K., Quraishi, A. N., & Illsley, N. P. (1999) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jcem.84.2.5438 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Comparison of an Insulin Analog, Insulin Aspart, and Regular Human Insulin With No Insulin in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Pettitt, D. J., Ospina, P., Kolaczynski, J. W., & Jovanovič, L. (2003) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.26.1.183 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Elevated Pregnancy Losses at High and Low Extremes of Maternal Glucose in Early Normal and Diabetic Pregnancy
Jovanovic, L. G., Knopp, R. H., Kim, H. T., Cefalu, W. T., Zhu, X., Lee, Y. J., Simpson, J. L., Mills, J. L., & for the Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study Group (2005) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.28.5.1113 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Unveiling Gestational Diabetes: An Overview of Pathophysiology and Management
Mittal, R., Prasad, K., Lemos, J. R. N., Arevalo, G., & Hirani, K. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26052320 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Preprandial versus postprandial blood glucose monitoring in type 1 diabetic pregnancy: A randomized controlled clinical trial
Manderson, J. G., Patterson, C., Hadden, D. R., Traub, A. I., Ennis, C. N., & McCance, D. R. (2003) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1067/s0002-9378(03)00497-6 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Pathophysiology of postprandial hyperglycaemia in women with type 1 diabetes during pregnancy
Murphy, H. R., Elleri, D., Allen, J. M., Harris, J. R., Simmons, D. S., Rayman, G. A., Temple, R., Umpleby, A. M., Dunger, D. B., Haidar, A., et al. (2011) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-011-2363-6 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Is gestational diabetes mellitus an independent risk factor for macrosomia: a meta-analysis?
He, X.-J., Qin, F., Hu, C., Zhu, M., Tian, C., & Li, L. (2014) · Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics · doi:10.1007/s00404-014-3545-5 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Glucose challenge test for detecting gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review
van Leeuwen, M., Louwerse, M., Opmeer, B., Limpens, J., Serlie, M., Reitsma, J., & Mol, B. (2012) · BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2011.03254.x · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Insulin therapy for type 2 diabetes: rescue, augmentation, and replacement of beta-cell function.
Mayfield, J. A., & White, R. D. (2004) · PubMed · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Altered activity of the system A amino acid transporter in microvillous membrane vesicles from placentas of macrosomic babies born to diabetic women.
Kuruvilla, A. G., D'Souza, S. W., Glazier, J. D., Mahendran, D., Maresh, M., & Sibley, C. P. (1994) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci117386 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Maternal metabolic control and perinatal outcome in women with gestational diabetes treated with regular or lispro insulin: comparison with non-diabetic pregnant women
Mecacci, F., Carignani, L., Cioni, R., Bartoli, E., Parretti, E., Torre, P. L., Scarselli, G., & Mello, G. (2003) · European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology · doi:10.1016/s0301-2115(03)00157-x · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Efficacy, safety and lack of immunogenicity of insulin aspart compared with regular human insulin for women with gestational diabetes mellitus
Pettitt, D. J., Ospina, P., Howard, C., Zisser, H., & Jovanovič, L. (2007) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2007.02247.x · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Role of Diet and Insulin Treatment of Diabetes in Pregnancy
Jovanovič, L. (2000) · Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/00003081-200003000-00005 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Maternal factors that determine neonatal size and body fat
Catalano, P. M., & Kirwan, J. P. (2001) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-001-0013-y · Cited by 102 · see citing works
The postprandial glucose profile in the diabetic pregnancy
Ben‐Haroush, A., Yogev, Y., Chen, R., Rosenn, B., Hod, M., & Langer, O. (2004) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2004.01.055 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
15. Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2026
Bajaj, M. S., McCoy, R. G., Balapattabi, K., Bannuru, R. R., Bellini, N. J., Bennett, A. K., Beverly, E. A., Early, K. B., Brown, F. M., ChallaSivaKanaka, S., et al. (2025) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc26-s015 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
A walking intervention improves capillary glucose control in women with gestational diabetes mellitus: a pilot study
Davenport, M. H., Mottola, M. F., McManus, R. M., & Gratton, R. (2008) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/h08-018 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Fetal size at birth in relation to quality of blood glucose control in pregnancies complicated by pregestational diabetes mellitus
Persson, B., & Hanson, U. (1996) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1996.tb09768.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Long-term Efficacy and Safety of Acarbose in the Treatment of Obese Subjects With Non—Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Coniff, R. F. (1994) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.1994.00420210080009 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
METABOLIC INTERACTIONS OF DIABETES AND PREGNANCY
Thomas A. Buchanan, M. D., & Kitzmiller, J. L. (1994) · Annual Review of Medicine · doi:10.1146/annurev.med.45.1.245 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citation
Evaluation of body composition of large-for-gestational-age infants of women with gestational diabetes mellitus compared with women with normal glucose tolerance levels
Durnwald, C. P., Huston-Presley, L., Amini, S., & Catalano, P. M. (2004) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2003.11.033 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
The Role of Dietary Carbohydrates in Gestational Diabetes
Mustad, V. A., Huynh, D. T. T., López-Pedrosa, J. M., Campoy, C., & Rueda, R. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12020385 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Targeting postprandial hyperglycemia
Rendell, M., & Jovanovič, L. (2006) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2006.05.012 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Relation of birthweight to maternal plasma glucose and insulin concentrations during normal pregnancy
Breschi, M., Seghieri, G., Bartolomei, G., Gironi, A., Baldi, S., & Ferrannini, E. (1993) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/bf00400812 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Effects of gestational diabetes on human placental glucose uptake, transfer, and utilisation
Osmond, D. T. D., Nolan, C. J., King, R. G., Brennecke, S. P., & Gude, N. M. (2000) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s001250051346 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Toward universal criteria for gestational diabetes: Relationships between seventy-five and one hundred gram glucose loads and between capillary and venous glucose concentrations
Weiss, P., Haeusler, M. C. H., Kainer, F., Pürstner, P., & Haas, J. G. (1998) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/s0002-9378(98)70500-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Glycemic Control Throughout Pregnancy and Fetal Growth in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes
RAYCHAUDHURI, K., & MARESH, M. J. A. (2000) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/s0029-7844(99)00485-8 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Maternal Nutrition and Perinatal Survival
Rush, D. (2009) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2001.tb06956.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Effect of low-level basal plus marked "pulsatile" hyperglycemia on insulin secretion in fetal sheep
Carver, T., Anderson, S. M., Aldoretta, P. W., & Hay, W. W. (1996) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.1996.271.5.e865 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Management of type 1 diabetes in pregnancy
Feldman, A. Z., & Brown, F. M. (2016) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-016-0765-z · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The World Health Organization (WHO) versus The International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Group (IADPSG) diagnostic criteria of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) and their associated maternal and neonatal outcomes
Basri, N. I., Mahdy, Z. A., Ahmad, S., Karim, A., Lim, P. S., Manaf, M. R. A., & Ismail, N. A. M. (2018) · Hormone Molecular Biology and Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1515/hmbci-2017-0077 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
The use of insulin analogues in pregnancy
Lambert, K., & Holt, R. I. G. (2013) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.12098 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Insulin sensitivity and glucose dynamics during pre-weaning foal development and in response to maternal diet composition
George, L. A., Staniar, W. B., Treiber, K. H., Harris, P. A., & Geor, R. J. (2009) · Domestic Animal Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.domaniend.2009.01.003 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Increased fat mass and cardiac septal hypertrophy in newborn infants of mothers with well-controlled diabetes during pregnancy
Åman, J., Hansson, U., Östlund, I., Wall, K., & Persson, B. (2011) · Neonatology · doi:10.1159/000323741 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Relationship between Oral Glucose Tolerance Test Characteristics and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes among Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Feng, H., Zhu, W., Yang, H.-X., Wei, Y.-M., Wang, C., Su, R., Hod, M., & Hadar, E. (2017) · Chinese Medical Journal · doi:10.4103/0366-6999.204928 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
What Is So Bad About a Big Baby?
Jovanovic, L. G. (2001) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.24.8.1317 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Biomarkers for Macrosomia Prediction in Pregnancies Affected by Diabetes
Nahavandi, S., Seah, J., Shub, A., Houlihan, C. A., & Ekinci, E. I. (2018) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2018.00407 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The effects of first-trimester diabetes control on the incidence of macrosomia
Rey, É., Attié, C., & Bonin, A. (1999) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/s0002-9378(99)70460-6 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Fetal Growth Spurt and Pregestational Diabetic Pregnancy
Wong, S. F., Chan, F.-Y., Oats, J. J. N., & McIntyre, D. H. (2002) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.25.10.1681 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Diabetes mellitus in pregnancy
Galerneau, F., & Inzucchi, S. E. (2004) · Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2004.09.002 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Optimal timing for postprandial glucose measurement in pregnant women with diabetes and a non-diabetic pregnant population evaluated by the Continuous Glucose Monitoring System (CGMS®)
Bühling, K. J., Winkel, T., Wolf, C., Kurzidim, B., Mahmoudi, M., Wohlfarth, K., Wäscher, C., Schink, T., & Dudenhausen, J. W. (2005) · Journal of Perinatal Medicine · doi:10.1515/jpm.2005.024 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Sonographic Evaluation of Fetal Growth and Body Composition in Women With Different Degrees of Normal Glucose Metabolism
Parretti, E., Carignani, L., Cioni, R. M., Bartoli, E., Borri, P., Torre, P. L., Mecacci, F., Martini, E., Scarselli, G., & Mello, G. (2003) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.26.10.2741 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Strategies in the Nutritional Management of Gestational Diabetes
Hernandez, T. L., ANDERSON, M. A., CHARTIER-LOGAN, C. J., Friedman, J. E., & Barbour, L. A. (2013) · Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/grf.0b013e3182a8e0e5 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Pregnancy outcome in type 2 diabetes mellitus: a retrospective analysis from the Netherlands
de Valk, H. W., van Nieuwaal, N. H. G., & Visser, G. H. A. (2006) · The Review of Diabetic Studies · doi:10.1900/rds.2006.3.134 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Preexisting Diabetes and Pregnancy: An Endocrine Society and European Society of Endocrinology Joint Clinical Practice Guideline
Wyckoff, J., Lapolla, A., Asias-Dinh, B. D., Barbour, L. A., Brown, F. M., Catalano, P. M., Corcoy, R., Renzo, G. C. D., Drobycki, N., Kautzky‐Willer, A., et al. (2025) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaf288 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Maternal third trimester hyperglycaemic excursions predict large-for-gestational-age infants in type 1 diabetic pregnancy
Herranz, L., Pallardo, L. F., Hillman, N., Martin-Vaquero, P., Bajo, Á. V., & Fernandez, A. (2006) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2006.05.019 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Peak-time determination of post-meal glucose excursions in insulin-treated diabetic patients
Daenen, S., Sola‐Gazagnes, A., M’Bemba, J., Dorange-Breillard, C., Defer, F., Elgrably, F., Larger, É., & Slama, G. (2010) · Diabetes & Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.diabet.2009.12.002 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Should the same glucose values be targeted for type 1 as for type 2 diabetics in pregnancy?
Sacks, D. A., Chen, W., Greenspoon, J. S., & Wolde-Tsadik, G. (1997) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/s0002-9378(97)70025-5 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The Role of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Jovanovic, L. G. (2000) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/15209150050214159 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Glycemic Characteristics and Neonatal Outcomes of Women Treated for Mild Gestational Diabetes
Durnwald, C. P., Mele, L., Spong, C. Y., Ramin, S. M., Varner, M. W., Rouse, D. J., SCISCIONE, A. C., Catalano, P. M., Saade, G. R., Sorokin, Y., et al. (2011) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/aog.0b013e31820fc6cf · Cited by 44 · see citing works
An Update on Diabetic Women Obstetrical Outcomes Linked to Preconception and Pregnancy Glycemic Profile: A Systematic Literature Review
Gizzo, S., Patrelli, T. S., Rossanese, M., Noventa, M., Berretta, R., Gangi, S. D., Bertin, M., Gangemi, M., & Nardelli, G. B. (2013) · The Scientific World JOURNAL · doi:10.1155/2013/254901 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Etiology, Detection, and Management of Fetal Macrosomia in Pregnancies Complicated by Diabetes Mellitus
Sacks, D. A. (2007) · Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/grf.0b013e31815a6242 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. At What Time Should the Postprandial Glucose Level be Monitored?
Moses, R. G., Luca, E. M., & Knights, S. (1999) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1479-828x.1999.tb03132.x · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Insulin Lispro Therapy in Pregnancies Complicated by Type 1 Diabetes: Glycemic Control and Maternal and Fetal Outcomes
Garg, S. K., Frías, J. P., Anil, S., Gottlieb, P. A., MacKenzie, T. A., & Jackson, W. E. (2003) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep.9.3.187 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Relationship of neonatal body composition to maternal glucose control in women with gestational diabetes mellitus
Uvena-Celebrezze, J., Fung, C., Thomas, A., Hoty, A., Huston-Presley, L., Amini, S. B., & Catalano, P. M. (2002) · The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine · doi:10.1080/jmf.12.6.396.401 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Factors affecting fetal weight distribution in women with type I diabetes
Johnstone, F. D., Mao, J., Steel, J. M., Prescott, R. J., & Hume, R. (2000) · BJOG An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology · doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2000.tb10403.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Time in range in pregnancy: is there a role?
Wyckoff, J. A., & Brown, F. M. (2021) · Diabetes Spectrum · doi:10.2337/ds20-0103 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Gestational diabetes mellitus in association with macrosomia in Iran: a meta-analysis
Tabrizi, R., Asemi, Z., Lankarani, K. B., Akbari, M., Khatibi, S. R., Naghibzadeh‐Tahami, A., Sanjari, M., Alizadeh, H., Afshari, M., Khodadost, M., et al. (2019) · Journal of Diabetes & Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40200-019-00388-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Successful Pregnancy in Women with Type 1 Diabetes: From Preconception Through Postpartum Care
Jovanovič, L., & Nakai, Y. (2006) · Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.ecl.2005.09.008 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Diabetes during Pregnancy Does Not Alter Whole Body Bone Mineral Content in Infants
Lapillonne, A., Guerin, S., Braillon, P. M., Claris, O., Delmas, P. D., & Salle, B. L. (1997) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.82.12.3993 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Pregestational Diabetes in Pregnancy
Sugrue, R. P., & Zera, C. (2018) · Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2018.01.002 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Insulin pump dosing across gestation in women with well-controlled type 1 diabetes mellitus
Roeder, H., Moore, T. R., & Ramos, G. A. (2012) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2012.06.029 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Using Meal-Based Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose as a Tool to Improve Outcomes in Pregnancy Complicated By Diabetes
Jovanovic, L. G. (2008) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.4158/ep.14.2.239 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Carbohydrate Content in the GDM Diet: Two Views: View 1: Nutrition Therapy in Gestational Diabetes: The Case for Complex Carbohydrates
Hernandez, T. L. (2016) · Diabetes Spectrum · doi:10.2337/diaspect.29.2.82 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Masked hypoglycemia in pregnancy
Naik, D., Shyamasunder, A. H., Mruthyunjaya, M. D., Patil, R. G., Paul, T. V., Christina, F., Inbakumari, M., Jose, R., Lionel, J., Regi, A., et al. (2016) · Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.1111/1753-0407.12485 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Achieving Euglycaemia in Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
Jovanovic, L. G. (2004) · Drugs · doi:10.2165/00003495-200464130-00002 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Pancreatic Disorders of Pregnancy: Diagnosis, Management, and Outcome of Gestational Diabetes
Bevier, W. C., Jovanovic‐Peterson, L., & Peterson, C. M. (1995) · Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0889-8529(18)30055-0 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Fetal Growth in Diabetic Pregnancy
Moore, T. R. (1997) · Clinical Obstetrics & Gynecology · doi:10.1097/00003081-199712000-00012 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Glycemic Targets in Pregnancies Affected by Diabetes: Historical Perspective and Future Directions
Hernandez, T. L. (2014) · Current Diabetes Reports · doi:10.1007/s11892-014-0565-2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Type 1 Diabetes and Pregnancy
Johnstone, F. D., Lindsay, R. S., & Steel, J. (2006) · Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1097/01.aog.0000218706.38886.10 · Cited by 34 · see citing works

Maternal postprandial glucose levels and infant birth weight: the diabetes in early pregnancy study
Jovanovic-Peterson, L., Peterson, C. M., Reed, G. F., Metzger, B. E., Mills, J. L., Knopp, R. H., & Aarons, J. H. (1991) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/0002-9378(91)90637-7 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Maternal obesity not maternal glucose values correlates best with high rates of fetal macrosomia in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes
Schaefer-Graf, U., Heuer, R., Kilavuz, Ö., Pandura, A., Henrich, W., & Vetter, K. (2002) · Journal of Perinatal Medicine · doi:10.1515/jpm.2002.046 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Plasma Lipoprotein Composition and Cholesteryl Ester Transfer from High Density Lipoproteins to Very Low Density and Low Density Lipoproteins in Patients with Non-insulin-dependent Diabetes Mellitus
Bhatnagar, D., Durrington, P. N., Kumar, S., Mackness, M., & Boulton, A. J. M. (1996) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-9136(199602)13:2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Hyperinsulinemia and Macrosomia in the Fetus of the Diabetic Mother
Schwartz, R., Gruppuso, P. A., Petzold, K., Brambilla, D., Hiilesmaa, V., & Teramo, K. A. (1994) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.17.7.640 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Glucose threshold for macrosomia in pregnancy complicated by diabetes
Willman, S. P., Leveno, K. J., Guzick, D. S., Williams, M., & Whalley, P. J. (1986) · American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology · doi:10.1016/0002-9378(86)90692-7 · Cited by 52 · see citing works

Authors: Combs, C. A., Gunderson, E., Kitzmiller, J. L., Gavin, L. A., & Main, E. K.
Affiliations: University of California, San Francisco (US)
ORCID: Combs, C Andrew
Gunderson, Erica
Venue: Diabetes Care
Publisher: American Diabetes Association
Published: 1992-10-01
Volume: 15
Issue: 10
Pages: 1251-1257
ISSN: 0149-5992 (ISSN-L)
1935-5548
DOI: 10.2337/diacare.15.10.1251
OpenAlex: W2027920062
Cited by: 315
References: 24
Citations by year: 2026: 1 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 7
FWCI: 7.34
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Diabetes Care (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Gestational Diabetes Research and Management
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
Health Sciences › Medicine › Pediatrics, Perinatology and Child Health › Birth, Development, and Health
Keywords: macrosomia, maternal hyperglycemia, postprandial blood glucose, fasting blood glucose, gestational diabetes mellitus, insulin dose, energy intake, glycemic control, HbA1c, small for gestational age, birth weight, gestational age
MeSH terms: Adult, Analysis of Variance, Birth Weight, Blood Glucose, Energy Intake, Diet, Diabetic, Eating, Female, Fetal Macrosomia, Gestational Age, Humans, Infant, Newborn, Insulin, Maternal Age, Pregnancy, Pregnancy in Diabetics, Incidence

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Relationship of Fetal Macrosomia to Maternal Postprandial Glucose Control During Pregnancy

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks