Life Cycle. Links Between Settlements And Burial Caves During The Chalcolithic In The Lisbon Peninsula (Portugal)

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The analysis identified five distinct scenarios: (1) absence of caves around settlements; (2) settlements with traces of occupation prior to known funerary use of associated caves; (3) funerary contexts predating foundation of walled structures; (4) coexistent use between settlements and caves; and (5) broad diversity of burial structures.

“The analysis of the data allowed us to identify five distinct scenarios: (1) the absence of caves around the settlements; (2) the presence of settlements with traces of occupation prior to the known funerary use of the associated caves; (3) funerary contexts predating the foundation of the walled structures; (4) coexistent use between settlements and caves; and (5) a broad diversity of burial stru”

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Results from Penedo do Lexim reveal a dual model of settlement-burial interaction, with a more pronounced contrast than observed at Leceia.

“Results from Penedo do Lexim reveal a dual model of settlement-burial interaction, but with a more pronounced contrast than observed at Leceia (fig.5a).”

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Leceia has a direct spatial and chronological association with the nearby cave of Moinho da Moura, located within a 10-minute walking distance because the cave is within the settlement escarpment itself.

“The settlement has a direct spatial and chronological association with the nearby cave of Moinho da Moura (<10-minute walking distance, since the cave is located within the settlement escarpment itself -Table 3), suggesting integrated use.”

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The analysis indicates multiple configurations of spatial relationships between Chalcolithic settlements and funerary caves in the Lisbon Peninsula, ranging from proximate contemporaneous uses (e.g., Lexim and Leceia) to diachronic reappropriations and ritualized distances (e.g., Paço and Moita da Ladra).

“Results indicate multiple configurations, ranging from proximate, contemporaneous uses (e.g.Lexim and Leceia), to diachronic reappropriations and ritualized distances (e.g.Paço and Moita da Ladra).”

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Two coastal funerary complexes-Fojo dos Morcegos and Lizandro's shelters-lie more than two hours from Penedo do Lexim and are more difficult to access, making their functional relationship with Lexim less straightforward.

“In contrast, two coastal funerary complexes -Fojo dos Morcegos and Lizandro's shelters -lie more than two hours from the settlement and are more difficult to access, which makes their functional relationship with Lexim less straightforward (Table 2).”

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Verdelha dos Ruivos, the closest cave to Moita da Ladra, lies at a moderate distance, while Lapa da Figueira is considerably more remote, with an estimated walking time of two hours.

“Verdelha dos Ruivos, the closest of these, lies at a moderate distance, while Lapa da Figueira is considerably more remote, with an estimated walking time of two hours (Table 2).”

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At Zambujal, one of the largest settlements, no natural caves are associated, but rock-cut tombs and tholoi predominate; conversely, smaller settlements such as Fórnea and Pico Agudo are associated with burial caves.

“At Zambujal-one of the largest settlements-no natural caves are associated, but rock-cut tombs and tholoi predominate.Conversely, smaller settlements such as Fórnea and Pico Agudo are associated with burial caves (Spindler, 1971;Kunst, 2002).”

• cites Spindler, 1971Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Kunst, 2002Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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Leceia and burial caves show a balanced pattern between immediate and mid-range accessibility, whereas at Moita da Ladra the nearest caves are more than 1 km away.

“Leceia and burial caves show a balanced pattern between immediate and mid-range accessibility whereas at Moita da Ladra the nearest caves are more than 1 km away.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Cova da Moura yielded dates indicating use prior to settlement foundation, with continued occupation possibly influenced by settlement presence.

“Although small and lacking grave goods, Cova da Moura yielded dates indicating use prior to settlement foundation, with continued occupation possibly influenced by settlement presence.”

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Some settlements lack nearby funerary caves, while some caves were intensively used without adjacent settlements.

“Some settlements lack nearby funerary caves, while some caves were intensively used without adjacent settlements.”

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At Fórnea, the Carrasca cave was used during the transition from the 4th to the 3rd millennium BC, while settlement occupation appears to begin only in the Early Chalcolithic.

“The Carrasca cave was used during the transition from the 4th to the 3rd millennium CPAG 36, 2026, 00-00.ISSN: 2174-8063 BC, while settlement occupation appears to begin only in the Early Chalcolithic, suggesting the possibility of earlier, yet unidentified, activity (Gonçalves, 1995).”

• cites Gonçalves, 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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At Paço, Late Neolithic materials indicate earlier occupation, and five caves fall into this category, most displaying funerary use.

“At Paço, Late Neolithic materials indicate earlier occupation.Five caves fall into this category, most displaying funerary use.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

At Paço, Late Neolithic materials suggest potential co-occurrence with Reguengo Pequeno, Cova da Moura, Malgasta, Casa da Moura, and Barroda.

“At Paço, Late Neolithic materials suggest potential co-occurrence with Reguengo Pequeno, Cova da Moura, Malgasta, Casa da Moura, and Barroda.”

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Some communities maintained funerary cave traditions, while others turned to alternative burial structures.

“Some communities maintained funerary cave traditions, while others turned to alternative burial structures.”

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At Zambujal, no natural caves are associated with the settlement, but several tholoi and hypogea are located nearby, and the remaining area appears currently devoid of funerary contexts.

“Although no natural caves are associated with the settlement, several tholoi and hypogea are located nearby (though not in its immediate surroundings), while the remaining area appears currently devoid of funerary contexts.”

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The funerary utilisation of nearby cavities shows significant chronological cohesion, suggesting broader regional dynamics.

“Although only these settlements display evidence of occupation prior to cave use, the funerary utilisation of nearby cavities shows significant chronological cohesion, suggesting broader regional dynamics.”

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Some funerary contexts are contemporary with or slightly later than settlement occupation, indicating synchronic relationships between living and mortuary spaces.

“Conversely, some funerary contexts are contemporary with or slightly later than settlement occupation, indicating synchronic relationships between living and mortuary spaces.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Pulgas cave yielded only a decorated Early Neolithic vessel.

“The Pulgas cave yielded only a decorated Early Neolithic vessel.”

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Penedo do Lexim shows close links with nearby rock shelters and more distant coastal burial sites, whereas Paço exhibits a dense path network from the settlement to nearby caves, suggesting strong funerary integration.

“Penedo do Lexim shows close links with nearby rock shelters and more distant coastal burial sites, whereas while Paço exhibits a dense path network from the settlement to nearby caves, suggesting strong funerary integration.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Fojo dos Morcegos has yielded Bell Beaker materials, while Lizandro shelters 1 and 2 show a funerary occupation dated both to the Early Neolithic and to the Late Chalcolithic.

“Chronologically, Fojo dos Morcegos has yielded Bell Beaker materials, while Lizandro shelters 1 and 2 show a funerary occupation dated both to the Early Neolithic and to the Late Chalcolithic (Sousa et al., 2024).”

• cites Sousa et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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In the compact sub-territory around Leceia, connections are corroborated by material evidence from all associated sites, demonstrating at least some degree of contemporaneity and potentially a more complex network of interactions among prehistoric communities.

“In this compact sub-territory, these connections are corroborated by material evidence from all associated sites, CPAG 36, 2026, 00-00.ISSN: 2174-8063 demonstrating at least some degree of contemporaneity and, potentially, a more complex network of interactions among prehistoric communities.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The analysis did not consider potential fluvial transport routes, which could have reduced travel times to coastal caves.

“It should be noted that our analysis did not consider potential fluvial transport routes, which could have reduced travel times to coastal caves.”

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Very few Bell Beaker elements have been recovered at Lexim, suggesting that the coastal sites may represent earlier or later phases of discontinuous reuse, rather than contemporaneous activity with the settlement.

“Very few Bell Beaker elements have been recovered at Lexim, suggesting that these coastal sites may represent earlier or later phases of discontinuous reuse, rather than contemporaneous activity with the settlement.”

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The proximity of the Lexim rock shelters to the settlement, combined with evidence of chronological overlap, suggests an integrated funerary use, possibly reflecting a concentration of burial practices within the walled enclosure.

“This proximity, combined with evidence of chronological overlap, suggests an integrated funerary use, possibly reflecting a concentration of burial practices within the walled enclosure.”

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The spatial dynamics support the interpretation of Leceia as a local hub, where a functional articulation between the spaces of the living and the dead is evident.

“Within the context of the selected case studies, the spatial dynamics support the interpretation of Leceia as a local hub, where a functional articulation between the spaces of the living and the dead is evident.”

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The proximity and number of caves associated with Paço indicate frequent reuse and regular visitation, possibly integrating daily or weekly community movements.

“The proximity and number of associated caves indicate a frequent reuse and regular visitation, possibly integrating daily or weekly community movements.”

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The configuration at Paço points to a centrality of Paço and suggests a key role in the structure of the funerary and symbolic landscape.

“This configuration points to a centrality of Paço and suggests a key role in the structure of the funerary and symbolic landscape, of which the cave necropolis is but one component.”

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The distribution of caves around Leceia indicates a dual pattern of association: immediate proximity with low travel effort and moderately distant sites with manageable access, reflecting a model of mild accessibility.

“This distribution indicates a dual pattern of association: immediate proximity with low travel effort and moderately distant sites with manageable access, reflecting a model of mild accessibility.”

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Moita da Ladra shows a sharper separation between domestic and funerary spaces, involving greater effort and longer distances.

“This suggests a sharper separation between domestic and funerary spaces, involving greater effort and longer distances (Table 3).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Unlike the last hunter-gatherer groups of the Late Mesolithic, whose large cemeteries often occupied areas associated with domestic use, the late stage of the Middle Neolithic marks the emergence of necropolises that were spatially segregated from domestic contexts.

“Unlike the last hunter-gatherer groups of the Late Mesolithic-whose large cemeteries often occupied areas associated with domestic use (Peyroteo-Sterna, 2016)-the late stage of the Middle Neolithic (late 5th to early 4th millennium BC) marks the emergence of necropolises that were spatially segregated from domestic contexts.”

• cites Peyroteo-Sterna, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

In the karstic regions of southern Portugal, namely Lisbon, Setúbal, and the Algarve, natural caves were first used as collective burial sites from the beginning of the 4th millennium BC onwards, continuing throughout the local Chalcolithic.

“In the karstic regions of southern Portugal, namely Lisbon, Setúbal, and the Algarve, natural caves were first used as collective burial sites from the beginning of the 4th millennium BC onwards, continuing throughout the local Chalcolithic (Carvalho and Cardoso, 2015).”

• cites Carvalho and Cardoso, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

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The Beaker ceramics present in the Moita da Ladra settlement correspond to the Maritime Dotted group, and these productions are virtually absent from the Verdelha dos Ruivos inventory, which is dominated by incised decorations.

“Specifically, the Beaker ceramics present in the settlement correspond to the Maritime Dotted group, and these productions are virtually absent from the Verdelha dos Ruivos inventory, which is dominated by incised decorations (Cardoso, 2014;Cardoso et al., 2024).”

• cites Cardoso, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cardoso et al., 2024 sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The community that inhabited Moita da Ladra may have been buried elsewhere, perhaps in another nearby cave that has not yet been identified.

“In that sense, it has been noted that the community that inhabited Moita da Ladra may have been buried elsewhere, perhaps in another nearby cave that has not yet been identified.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The spatial distinction between the spaces of the living and the dead constitutes a fundamental feature in the formation of the first peasant communities in the Iberian Peninsula.

“The spatial distinction between the spaces of the living and the dead constitutes a fundamental feature in the formation of the first peasant communities in the Iberian Peninsula (fig.1).”

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This duality attests to structured forms of territorial occupation, identifying long-lasting spatial and symbolic logics.

“This duality attests to structured forms of territorial occupation, identifying long-lasting spatial and symbolic logics.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The association between the Acacia Leaf ceramics group and the Bell Beaker ceramics, attested in the settlement but not in the cave, may be explained by ritual prescriptions that account for the absence of the first group within the votive goods of Chalcolithic burials.

“Furthermore, the association between the Acacia Leaf ceramics group and the Bell Beaker ceramics, attested in the settlement but not in this cave, may be explained by ritual prescriptions that account for the absence of the first group within the votive goods of Chalcolithic burials.”

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LCP and walking-time simulations have been successfully applied to Chalcolithic and Bronze Age sites and their potential routes, as well as to Neolithic potential movements, but their application to Chalcolithic funerary contexts remains scarce.

“While LCP and walking-time simulations have been successfully applied to Chalcolithic and Bronze Age sites and their potential routes (Bilotti et al., 2024;Texugo et al., 2025), as well as to Neolithic potential movements (Carvalho, 2014), their application to Chalcolithic funerary contexts remains scarce, despite some recent advances (Cabrero et al., 2024a(Cabrero et al., , 2024b)).”

• cites Bilotti et al., 2024 sourceNot checked yet
• cites Texugo et al., 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Carvalho, 2014 sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Despite the density of burial caves and settlements in the Lisbon Peninsula, few studies have integrated these datasets through a spatial analytical framework.

“Despite the density of burial caves and settlements in the Lisbon Peninsula, few studies have integrated these datasets through a spatial analytical framework.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

As a densely inhabited region, Estremadura presents one of the most complex archaeological mosaics of Chalcolithic Iberia.

“As a densely inhabited region, Estremadura presents one of the most complex archaeological mosaics of Chalcolithic Iberia.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The region's lithological diversity-including marls, limestones, basalts, and granites-fosters a diversified landscape which allows for both habitation and burial.

“The region's lithological diversity-including marls, limestones, basalts, and granites-fosters a diversified landscape which allows for both habitation and burial.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

During the 4th millennium, funerary contexts tend to be more visible in the archaeological record than domestic ones, a pattern that shifts during the Chalcolithic with the appearance of walled enclosures.

“During the 4th millennium, funerary contexts tend to be more visible in the archaeological record than domestic ones (Gonçalves, 2000)-a pattern that shifts during the Chalcolithic with the appearance of walled enclosures (Gonçalves et al., 2013).”

• cites Gonçalves, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Gonçalves et al., 2013 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

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The funerary function of caves seems to have consolidated during the Late Neolithic and persisted into advanced Chalcolithic phases, possibly in connection with broader social and territorial transformations.

“The funerary function of caves seems to have consolidated during the Late Neolithic and persisted into advanced Chalcolithic phases, possibly in connection with broader social and territorial transformations.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

While slope remains the most influential variable according to Llobera (1999) and subsequent refinements, alternative parameterisations could produce different movement predictions.

“While slope remains the most influential variable according to Llobera (1999) and subsequent refinements (Fábrega and Parcero, 2007)-alternative parameterisations could produce different movement predictions.”

• cites Llobera (1999)Not matched

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• cites Fábrega and Parcero, 2007Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The use of caves as burial places intensified in the later 4th millennium BC, despite the emergence of other funerary architectures.

“Their use as burial places intensified in the later 4th millennium BC, despite the emergence of other funerary architectures (Peterson, 2019).”

• cites Peterson, 2019 sourceCheck pending

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Today, there are over 119 funerary Neolithic and Chalcolithic caves and 21 walled Chalcolithic enclosures known in the Lisbon Peninsula.

“Today, there are over more than 119 funerary Neolithic and Chalcolithic caves (van Calker, 2025) and 21 walled Chalcolithic enclosures known in the Lisbon Peninsula (Sousa and Gonçalves, 2021).”

• cites van Calker, 2025 sourceCheck pending
• cites Sousa and Gonçalves, 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Other built funerary architectures emerged later in the 4th millennium, such as dolmens and artificial caves, and, by the 3rd millennium BC, tholoi.

“Other built funerary architectures emerged later in the 4th millennium, such as dolmens and artificial caves, and, by the 3rd millennium BC, tholoi (Gonçalves, 2003;Boaventura, 2011).”

• cites Gonçalves, 2003Not matched

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• cites Boaventura, 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The environmental reconstructions used represent best-fit models for the 3rd millennium BC but cannot fully capture micro-topographic variability or short-term environmental shifts.

“The environmental reconstructions used represent best-fit models for the 3rd millennium BC but cannot fully capture micro-topographic variability or short-term environmental shifts.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

This articulation reflects broader processes of territorial sacralisation, community identity formation, and intergenerational memory transmission.

“This articulation reflects broader processes of territorial sacralisation, community identity formation, and intergenerational memory transmission.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

At Vila Nova de São Pedro, an algar was recently identified within the settlement area, forming part of a karst system that may have provided access to groundwater and to diaclases potentially used for burials.

“At Vila Nova de São Pedro, an algar was recently identified within the settlement area.It forms part of a karst system underlying the site, potentially providing access not only to groundwater but also to diaclases that may have been used for burials (Jordão et al., 2024).”

• cites Jordão et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

All GIS operations were performed using QGIS 3.10 and GRASS GIS modules, ensuring metric consistency through the ETRS89/PT-TM06 projected coordinate system.

“All GIS operations were performed using QGIS 3.10 and GRASS GIS modules, ensuring metric consistency through the ETRS89/PT-TM06 projected coordinate system.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Factors such as group size, load, and seasonality remain unaccounted for in the analysis.

“Factors such as group size, load, and seasonality remain unaccounted for.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Absolute dates from Feteira cave confirm recurrent visitation and reuse, as well as an intensification of funerary cave use during the Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition.

“Absolute dates from Feteira cave confirm recurrent visitation and reuse, as well as an intensification of funerary cave use during the Neolithic-Chalcolithic transition (Waterman et al., 2014).”

• cites Waterman et al., 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Throughout the Holocene, caves underwent functional transformations in tandem with changing social and ideological paradigms.

“Throughout the Holocene, caves underwent functional transformations in tandem with changing social and ideological paradigms.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

At Olelas, materials from the Early and Late Neolithic and the Chalcolithic have been documented, and the settlement is associated with three small caves-Cova da Raposa, Cova do Beguino, and Cova do Arco-where anthropological and archaeological remains were reported.

“At Olelas, materials from the Early and Late Neolithic and the Chalcolithic have been documented.The settlement is associated with three small caves-Cova da Raposa, Cova do Beguino, and Cova do Arco-where anthropological and archaeological remains were reported (Sousa, 2017).”

• cites Sousa, 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Although Tobler's function is widely validated, it may overestimate mobility in rugged contexts.

“Although Tobler's function is widely validated, it may overestimate mobility in rugged contexts.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Settlement-cave relationships were neither structural nor obligatory, but dependent on geomorphological conditions, local social dynamics, and inherited funerary traditions.

“This reinforces the interpretation that settlement-cave relationships were neither structural nor obligatory, but dependent on geomorphological conditions, local social dynamics, and inherited funerary traditions.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

These high-resolution datasets strengthened the accuracy of spatial correlations and supported the selection of sites with consistent archaeological characterisation and well-defined funerary evidence across the regional spectrum.

“These high-resolution datasets strengthened the accuracy of spatial correlations and supported the selection of sites with consistent archaeological characterisation and well-defined funerary evidence across the regional spectrum.”