The DOI matches its Crossref record; 95 of the 95 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 25 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
When Tribal Sovereignty Challenges Democracy: American Indian Education and the Democratic Ideal
Abstract
The lessons of American Indian education—a grand experiment in standardization—can lead to a more equitable educational system for all U.S. citizens. While masquerading as a tool for equal opportunity, standardization has marginalized Native peoples. We argue for diversity—not standardization—as a foundational value for a just multicultural democracy, but diversity is feared by some as a threat to the nation’s integrity. Critical historical analysis of the apparently contradictory policies and practices within American Indian education reveals a patterned response to cultural and linguistic diversity, as the federal government has attempted to distinguish “safe” from “dangerous” Native practices. Examples of the contest between Indigenous self-determination (rooted in internal sovereignty) and federal control illustrate the profound national ambivalence toward diversity but also the potential to nourish “places of difference” within a healthy democracy.
Overview
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The article argues that American Indian education has operated as a grand experiment in standardization that masks inequality, while federal policy has repeatedly permitted only “safe” Native cultural and linguistic practices and suppressed “dangerous” difference. It calls for diversity, not standardization, as a foundational value for a just multicultural democracy, using historical cases of community-controlled schooling and bilingual education to show both Indigenous self-determination and entrenched federal constraint.
Key findings
- Critical historical analysis reveals a patterned federal response: support for innocuous or “safe” expressions of tribal sovereignty, alongside manifold constraints on genuine sovereignty; apparent gains in Native educational autonomy have often been short-lived, localized, or overturned by federal control.
- Community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs produced documented benefits but remained hyper-regulated and underresourced. The American Indian Policy Review Commission (1976) reported that community-controlled schools restored “self-image and interest in learning,” lowered dropout rates, and graduated students with necessary academic skills.
- Rosier and Farella (1976) found that Rock Point Navajo fourth and fifth graders who learned to read first in Navajo and had content instruction in Navajo while learning English “scored significantly higher in Total Reading on the Stanford Achievement Test than did Navajo students in monolingual English BIA schools.”
- Language loss is severe: linguists estimate that at first contact with Europeans there were as many as 300 languages in what is now the United States; today 175 are still spoken, but only 20 are being passed on to the young (Krauss, 1998). Of 500,000 American Indian students in U.S. schools, it has been predicted that 60% will leave school before graduating (National Center for Education Statistics, 1995).
Methods
- Critical historical analysis of 20th-century American Indian education and federal Indian policy, organized around case examples such as the Meriam Report, Rough Rock Demonstration School, Rock Point, and key federal legislation.
- The authors are scholars of American Indian education trained in sociocultural anthropology; they draw on historical research on colonial education and federal Indian policy, as well as action-oriented, collaborative research, and position themselves as both “insiders” and “outsiders.”
- The main analysis examines paradoxes and contradictions in federal policy, interpreting them as a contest between Indigenous self-determination and federal efforts to distinguish “safe” from “dangerous” Native practices.
Limitations
- The paper states that it cannot address all the complexities of this history in the space allotted.
- The paper states that systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of current school-based language revitalization programs awaits further research.
- The paper acknowledges that no historical account is disinterested or politically neutral and that the authors are not disinterested outsiders. Evident from the text, the analysis is interpretive and historical, relying on selected cases and secondary sources rather than a systematic outcome study.
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Claims the paper makes
34 Own interpretation · 25 No basis given · 9 Sources not found · 5 No full text of the sources · 5 Not checked yet · 2 Own result
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The program was designed so that children would receive the majority of their instruction in Navajo from preschool through second grade.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we examined the recent history of American Indian education, we noted a pattern of federal support for innocuous or safe expressions of tribal sovereignty and of manifold constraints on the exercise of genuine sovereignty, exemplified in bilingual/bicultural education programs and community-controlled schools.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.
- Rests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
In the paper
“Motivated by the Meriam Report's criticisms, one of the changes in federal schools was the introduction of bilingual instruction in selected locales.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Meriam et al., 1928
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“Rough Rock educators sought to blend the old with the new—to construct discourses and practices that, in the words of the bilingual program director, would “prepare students to function in two languages and two worlds””
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Dick, 1998 source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In the 1940s, BIA educational personnel worked with Native language speakers and Native illustrators to develop the Indian Life Readers, including the Pueblo Series, Sioux Series, and Navajo Series.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Lomawaima, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
In the paper
“More than 70 years ago the authors of the Meriam Report envisioned the possibility that the nation not only could allow but could nurture places of difference within the U.S. democracy.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Meriam et al., 1928
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, we want to point out that on these tests, discriminatory and flawed as they are, Navajo students in bilingual education outperformed comparable students in English-only programs.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The critical-historical analysis presented here reveals the enormous -nve an n asd saa at a a et o aeds cate American Indian cultural and linguistic distinctiveness.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.
In the paper
“Congress responded, but not by providing the on-reservation boarding schools that the tribe had requested. Navajo children instead were bused to distant schools in Oklahoma, California, and Oregon.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Boyce, 1974
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A major finding of long-term evaluations of bilingual/bicultural education at Rough Rock was that bilingual students who had the benefit of cumulaa s s c paa s s ps cs and national measures of achievement (McCarty, 1993b, 2002).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCarty, 1993b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McCarty, 2002 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The history of federal and public education for American Indians is rife with examples of the contest between tribal sovereignty and federal powers.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Meanwhile, evidence was mounting that the academic achievement of students in some community-controlled schools equaled or surpassed that of students in schools with conventional English-only curricula.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Innovative bilingual programs involved both elements of past assimilation agendas and efforts to develop culturally relevant curricula.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our analysis reveals the ways in which Native communities continue to assert their linguistic and educational rights, even as they confront enormous constraints.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At Rough Rock these findings reinforced bilingual teachers' confidence and willingness to creatively work around the constraints of school accreditation and a prepackaged mastery learning program.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In each case, we see how steps toward positive valuations of Native cultures and languages, and apparent gains in Native influence on schools, have been diverted or overturned.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our research suggests that the pressures on families to abandon the heritage language are so intense that if left to individual families alone, the crisis of language loss will go unabated”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thematic units on culturally relevant topics were integral to the program design.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The important point is that they have not chosen to do so.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Language reclamation and maintenance are thus elemental to self-determination.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Buried in the rhetoric of standards and accountability is the fact that the mandates to standardize testing are not accompanied by parallel mandates to standardize the economic and social investment in children subjected to the tests.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The community-controlled school movement marked a turning point in American Indian education, opening a window of opportunity that had been barred shut just a few years before.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Another example of the tug-of-war between federal and tribal interests was the Navajo Special Education Program established after World War II.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Boyce, 1974
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Can American Indian cultural distinctiveness be maintained without the concomitant economic, political, and social marginalization of Indigenous communities? This question begs a larger one: Can places of difference be maintained without denying educational, economic, political, and social rights and opportunities to their inhabitants? Our answer to these questions is a passionate yes.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.
- Rests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Once again, partial tribal gains were offset by coercive federal actions.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another perspective on these times reveals a federal bureaucracy that constrained, even throttled, local opportunity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, there is growing evidence that the academic performance of children who reon scg na n s dng o-g es surpasses that of their peers in monolingual English classrooms—regardless of students' proficiency in the heritage language and English when they begin heritage language schooling (Holm & Holm, 1995; Kamanā & Wilson, 1996; Thomas & Collier, 1997).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Holm & Holm, 1995 source
- Not matchedcites Kamanā & Wilson, 1996
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Thomas & Collier, 1997
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This constellation of conditions can only be described as institutionalized racism (McCarty, 2002).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McCarty, 2002 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A more basic injustice is a system that bestows educational resources on the privileged, rewards their cultural capital, then consecrates their ensuing advantage with standardized tests (McCarty, 2002, p. 198).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McCarty, 2002, p. 198 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Together with the 1968 Bilingual Education Act (Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act), the Indian Education and the Indian SelfDetermination Acts created the legislative and financial framework for placing Indigenous education under community control (McCarty, 1997, p. 46).”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McCarty, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, the federal imperative to economically transform and assimilate Indian people subverted bilingual education to advance federal, rather than tribal or local community, goals.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Disturbingly but not surprisingly, language revitalization initiatives are compromised by the mounting pressures of externally imposed standards and the fierce public rhetoric surrounding school “accountability.””
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In 1966, the first American Indian community-controlled school was founded at the small Navajo community of Rough Rock, Arizona.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Can American Indian cultural distinctiveness be maintained without the concomitant economic, political, and social marginalization of Indigenous communities? This question begs a larger one: Can places of difference be maintained without denying educational, economic, political, and social rights and opportunities to their inhabitants? Our answer to these questions is a passionate yes.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.
- Rests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For better or for worse, schools are key arenas in which these contradictions are being negotiated.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Yet in reservation communities, schools are typically the most significant economic, social, and political resource.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, his statement came in response to a widely publicized and negative assessment of failed federal policies and BIA mismanagement and equally well-publicized Indigenous initiatives to assert educational rights.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 22
- Probably not a substantial claim. 30
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These gains, however, have often been short-lived or localized, and they have been strictly circumscribed by federal powers.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Throughout the 20th century, gains have been made in Native input into, or control over, educational processes and institutions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the costs of Indian education have largely been borne by Indian people.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Of the 500,000 American Indian students in U.S. schools, it has been predicted that 60% will leave school before graduating (National Center for Education Statistics, 1995).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites National Center for Education Statistics, 1995
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite this systemic and sustained effort, American Indians have survived as distinctive and productive peoples.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While masquerading as a tool for equal opportunity, standardization has marginalized Native peoples.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Beginning in third grade, approximately half the day would be devoted to instruction in Navajo and half to English.”
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With these teachers' support, in 1998 the Rough Rock School received two federal grants for a pre-K-12 Navajo immersion/language maintenance program.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When Indigenous initiatives have crossed the line between allowable, safe difference and radical, threatening difference, federal control has been reasserted in explicit, diffuse, and unmistakably constricting ways.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the last century-and-a-half, schools have purposefully and systematically worked to eradicate Native languages, religions, beliefs, and practices.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“What was unprecedented in their proposal was the idea that Indian people should have the power to make choices and that the federal government should support them in their choices”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Meriam et al., 1928
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“The report was an excoriating critique of the work of the Office of Indian Affairs, and because of its impact the Meriam Report is still viewed as a watershed in Indian education.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Meriam et al., 1928
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“American Indian children have been at the very center of the battleground between federal powers and tribal sovereignty; the war has been waged through them and about them”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hyper-regulated and hugely underresourced, Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs have waged an ongoing battle simply to survive.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe that the relationship between tribal sovereignty and federal sovereignty need not be an adversarial one.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Now, at the precipice of an irredeemable loss of their languages, tribes and their educational institutions face escalating pressures for standardization, reflected in high-stakes tests and the coupling of those tests with school funding.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indian experiences and survival point the way toward the best possibilities inherent in the critical-democratic ideal”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“American Indian survival—of peoples, cultural practices, and languages— constitutes real and meaningful diversity at the heart of our nation.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: American Indian people insist on surviving on their own terms, as real human beings, not as celluloid manifestations of a mythic fantasy or as passive and powerless victims.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tribes have a singular legal status that both predates and is recognized by the U.S. Constitution.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increasingly, Indigenous schools face the dilemma of “doing” Indigenous education while complying with high-stakes tests that devalue local knowledge and jeopardize children's life opportunities by threatening to deny them a high school degree.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“How the U.S. government and its nontribal citizens have treated American Indians in the past and how they continue to wrestle with their relationship with tribes lie at the core of the question of whether social justice and democracy can coexist.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The choices that Native communities make need not be either-or choices, nor must there be an immutable dividing line between Indigenous and nontribal citizens.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As is suggested by their name, these schools are prime arenas for the exercise of Indigenous leadership and education control.”
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indigenous peoples can survive, and are surviving, without their heritage languages.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It standardizes inequality and ensures that existing race- and class-based hierarchies are legitimized and reproduced.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The pernicious results are that funding is neither permanent nor adequate and that Indigenous students are all but guaranteed an inferior education.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Constructing an Indigenous identity in the heritage language is qualitatively different from constructing and enacting that identity in English.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We view diversity and democracy as inextricably linked.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Constitution empowers the President to negotiate treaties with foreign nations (ratification requires a two-thirds vote by the Senate)”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The statements of the Constitution—coupled with subsequent federal legislation, the bureaucratic rules of the federal agencies charged with supervising Indian affairs, and judicial decisions—have shaped the contours of life in Indian country today.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In practice, local control confronts bureaucratic constraints so overwhelming that federal self-determination legislation has been critiqued by Native and non-Native observers alike as a thinly disguised tool for strengthening the federal stranglehold over Indigenous affairs (see, e.g., American Indian Policy Review Commission [AIPRC], 1976; U.S. Congress, 1977; Senese, 1986).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites AIPRC, 1976
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites U.S. Congress, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Senese, 1986 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Similar school-based language revitalization initiatives are under way among Indigenous communities throughout the United States (see, e.g., Ah Nee-Benham, 2000; Henze & Davis, 1999; Hinton & Hale, 2001; Kipp, 2000;”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ah Nee-Benham, 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Henze & Davis, 1999 source
- Not matchedcites Hinton & Hale, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we have seen with the case of Rough Rock, bilingual educators are positioned not only to assert the primacy of the Native language within the school but also to support parents and children in using the language at home.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The history of American Indian education can rightfully be conceptualized as a grand experiment in standardization.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Clearly, Indigenous educators do so against a backdrop of oppression and in bureaucratic environments that are often toxic.”
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe that Native America's experiences provide lessons from which all citizens can learn”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Standardization, while masquerading as an equalizing force, in fact stratifies, segregates, and undercuts equality of opportunity.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe that schools are as essential as they are problematic.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Schools are not the only place for language recovery and the social transformations it entails, but schools are a necessary place for this work.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The tests are undeniably discriminatory in their English-only content and depreciation of the social and cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1977) that American Indian students bring to school.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bourdieu, 1977 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our analysis demonstrates that schools can be constructed as places of difference where children are free to learn, question, and grow from a position that affirms who they are.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
In the paper
“Each of these programs has distinct aims; each is accountable not to local teachers, parents, or the school board but to diverse federal agencies in Washington, D.C.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites McCarty, 1989, 1993b, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the heart of the conflict is a system of school funding that has been both inadequate and wildly unpredictable.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
History is a social construction.
“We begin by acknowledging history as a social construction.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
No historical account is disinterested or politically neutral.
“We do not claim to be disinterested outsiders but note that no historical account is disinterested or politically neutral.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Public education in the United States was founded on the principle of local control.
“public education in the United States was founded on the principle of local control.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many Americans view diversity as a threat to the national fabric, as a problem.
“Many Americans view diversity as a threat to the national fabric, as a problem.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The current political resurgence of tribes threatens many U.S. citizens.
“The current political resurgence of tribes clearly threatens many U.S. citizens, who are struggling to understand (or fighting vigorously to deny) tribal sovereign rights to hunt, fish, tax businesses, or operate casinos in various contexts.”
The paper relies on this without support.
American Indian people insist on surviving on their own terms, as real human beings, not as celluloid manifestations of a mythic fantasy or as passive and powerless victims.
“American Indian people insist on surviving on their own terms, as real human beings, not as celluloid manifestations of a mythic fantasy or as passive and powerless victims.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To flourish, individual human beings and social groups need room—and opportunity and resources—to develop and implement their values, philosophies, and beliefs.
“To flourish, individual human beings as well as social groups need room—and opportunity and resources—to develop and implement their values, philosophies, and beliefs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
All Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.
“Nonetheless, all Native peoples in the United States share a singular legal-political status in terms of their relationship to the U.S. government.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Rough Rock case is representative enough of Indigenous community-controlled schools and bilingual/bicultural programs to support general conclusions about them.
“As we have seen with the case of Rough Rock, bilingual educators are positioned not only to assert the primacy of the Native language within the school but also to support parents and children in using the language at home.”
Citations
Cites
Outline of a Theory of Practice
Bourdieu, P. (1977) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511812507 · Cited by 27,606
Outline of a Theory of Practice.
Frank, A. W., & Bourdieu, P. (1980) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2066038 · Cited by 14,591
Handbook of research on multicultural education
(2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-6667 · Cited by 2,618
Fishman, J. A. (1991) · Multilingual Matters eBooks · doi:10.21832/9781800418097 · Cited by 2,283
Negotiating Identities: Education for Empowerment in a Diverse Society
Cummins, J. (1996) · Cited by 1,847
International journal of the sociology of language 109
Brès, J. (1995) · Cahiers de praxématique · doi:10.4000/praxematique.3020 · Cited by 1,678
Linguistic Genocide in Education: Or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?
Johnson, D., & Skutnabb‐Kangas, T. (2001) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.2307/3587658 · Cited by 1,272
Linguistic Genocide in Education--or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights?
Skutnabb‐Kangas, T. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410605191 · Cited by 1,149
The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice
(2001) · BRILL eBooks · doi:10.1163/9789004261723 · Cited by 862
(1997) · Cited by 856
Research works printed but not linked: 21
- American Indian Policy Review Commission, 1976, Report on Indian education
- Beatty WW, 1943, The hen of Wahpeton, 90
- Clark A, 1943, The hen of Wahpeton
- Cohen Felix S, 1953, Yale Law Review, 62, 349
- Commission on Schools, 1983, The NCA K–12 guide: An instrument designed to help structure the self-study and team visit of a unit school evaluation
- Danielson C, 1989, Teaching for mastery
- Giroux HA, 2001, Language ideologies: Critical perspectives on the Official English Movement, 2, ix
- Holm W, One voice, many voices: Recreating indigenous language communities
- Johnson BH, 1968, Navaho education at Rough Rock
- Kamanā K, 1996, Stabilizing indigenous languages, 153
- Kipp DR, 2000, Encouragement, guidance, insights, and lessons learned for Native language activists developing their own tribal language programs
- Krauss M, 1996, Stabilizing indigenous languages, 16
- Lomawaima KT, 1996, Journal of American Indian Education, 35, 5
- Lomawaima KT, 2002, Blackwell companion to Native American history
- McCarty TL, 1998, International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 132, 27
- National Center for Educational Statistics, 1995, Characteristics of American Indian and Alaska Native education
- Parsons-Yazzie E, 1996, Journal of Navajo Education, 14, 60
- Slate C, 1993, Tribal College Journal, 4, 10
- U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs, 1977, Oversight hearings on the implementation of the Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act—P.L. 93-638. June 7 and 24
- White House Conference on Indian Education, 1992, The final report of the White House Conference on Indian Education, 1
- Yazzie E, 1976, Report on Indian education: Final report to the American Indian Policy Review Commission, 259
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Toward a Tribal Critical Race Theory in Education
Brayboy, B. M. J. (2005) · The Urban Review · doi:10.1007/s11256-005-0018-y · Cited by 1,265
Indigenous Knowledges and the Story of the Bean
Brayboy, B. M. J., & Mecham, E. (2009) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.79.1.l0u6435086352229 · Cited by 240
Sabzalian, L. (2019) · Theory & Research in Social Education · doi:10.1080/00933104.2019.1639572 · Cited by 181
Chapter 6 Equality and Justice For All? Examining Race in Education Scholarship
Brayboy, B. M. J., Castagno, A. E., & Maughan, E. (2007) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x07300046159 · Cited by 147
Vickery, A. E. (2017) · Theory & Research in Social Education · doi:10.1080/00933104.2017.1282387 · Cited by 113
Metadata
- Authors
- Lomawaima, K. T., & McCarty, T. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Arizona (US)
- ORCID
- McCarty, Teresa L.
- Venue
- American Educational Research Journal
- Published
- 2002-06
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 279-305
- ISSN
- 0002-8312 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-1011
- OpenAlex
- W2088694345
- Semantic Scholar
- 8a7d0c24f1683addad5fd32b8cd12acca1a20afc
- Cited by
- 183
- References
- 92
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 25 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 15.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Educational Research Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Indigenous and Place-Based Education
- Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Migration, Education, Indigenous Social Dynamics
- Keywords
- Native American education, tribal sovereignty, Indigenous self-determination, standardization of education, cultural and linguistic diversity, multicultural democracy, federal Indian policy, Native American students, educational equity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-06, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-06 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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