The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring
Abstract
T w o University of Chicago doctoral students in education, Anania (1982, 1983) and Burke (1984), completed dissertations in which they compared student learning under the following three conditions of instruction: 1. Conventional. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. Tests are given periodically for marking the students. 2. Mastery Learning. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. The instruction is the same as in the conventional class (usually with the same teacher). Formative tests (the same tests used with the conventional group) are given for feedback followed by corrective procedures and parallel formative tests to determine the extent to which the students have mastered the subject matter. 3. Tutoring. Students learn the subject matter with a good tutor for each student (or for two or three students simultaneously). This tutoring instruction is followed periodically by formative tests, feedback-corrective procedures, and parallel formative tests as in the mastery learning classes. It should be pointed out that the need for corrective work under tutoring is very small.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“skills vary within individuals based on goals, emotional states, and contextual supportsproducing a child's developmental range”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“a child's performance within that range can be optimized under conditions of high, personalized support”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“Bloom found that students who received effective one-on-one tutoring through a mastery learning framework performed two standard deviations better than students who did not.”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“One-to-one tutoring is an effective teaching method (Bloom, 1984).”
From Towards the Pedagogical Steering of Large Language Models for Tutoring: A Case Study with Modeling Productive Failure (2025) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“We believe that the increased learning from structured AI tutoring is largely due to its ability to offer personalized feedback on demand—just as one-on-one tutoring from a (human) expert is superior to classroom instruction15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“While the advantages of personalized instruction are clear, this model of education cannot scale to meet the needs of a large number of students15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Working with an expert personal tutor is generally regarded as the most efficient form of education15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“More focused effort on developing computer-based tutoring systems in particular started following the findings of Bloom (Bloom, 1984)—students who received tutoring in addition to group classes fared two standard deviations better than those who only participated in group classes.”
From Proactive and reactive engagement of artificial intelligence methods for education: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
Citations
Cites
From dissertation abstracts international
(1974) · ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics · doi:10.1145/988616.988619 · Cited by 12,208
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain
Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1966) · Cited by 4,624
Self-citationThe use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material.
Ausubel, D. P. (1960) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0046669 · Cited by 1,457
Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings
Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C.-L. C. (1982) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312019002237 · Cited by 1,138
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain
Blyth, W. A. L., Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1966) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3119730 · Cited by 1,123
Self-citationBrophy, J. E., & Good, T. L. (1970) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029908 · Cited by 922
Slavin, R. E. (1980) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543050002315 · Cited by 771
Improving the Productivity of America's Schools.
Walberg, H. J. (1984) · Educational leadership · Cited by 731
Jackson, D. R. (2023) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781071840801.n92 · Cited by 418
Socio‐psychological Environments and Learning: a quantitative synthesis
Haertel, G. D., Walberg, H. J., & Haertel, E. H. (1981) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1080/0141192810070103 · Cited by 354
Research works printed but not linked: 13
- Anania J, 1982, Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 4269A
- Bloom BS, 1980, Phi Delta Kappan, 61, 6
- Burke AJ, 1984, Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 2025A
- DaveRHThe identification and measurement of environment process variables that are related to educational achievement1963(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- DolanLJThe affective correlates of home concern and support, instructional quality, and achievement1980(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- JanhomSEducating parents to educate their children1983(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- Leyton FS, 1983, Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 974A
- MevarechZRThe role of teaching-learning strategies and feed-back-corrective procedures in developing higher cognitive achievement1980(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- NordinABThe effects of different qualities of instruction on selected cognitive, affective, and time variables1979(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- Nordin AB, 1980, Evaluation: in Education: An International Review Series, 4, 2
- Tenenbaum G, 1982, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 1822A
- WolfRMThe identification and measurement of home environmental process variables that are related to intelligence1964(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- Wolf RM, 1966, Testing Problems in Perspective
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 1,005
A ChatBot for Learning Chinese: Learning Achievement and Technology Acceptance
Chen, H.-L., Vicki Widarso, G., & Sutrisno, H. (2020) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633120929622 · Cited by 220
“ChatBot, a version of virtual assistant, is a program that is able to imitate human conversation (Tatai et al., 2003). Several studies have investigated the possibility of using ChatBot in language teaching and learning (Fryer et al., 2019; Jia, 2004; Lu et al., 2006) and found it to be an effective means of stimulati…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPedagogical agents as learning companions: the impact of agent emotion and gender
Kim, Y., Baylor, A. L., & Shen, E. (2007) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2006.00210.x · Cited by 228
“Granted, the ideal form of instruction might well be one-on-one human tutoring (Bloom 1984), where a learner can benefit from individualized cognitive guidance through dynamic social interaction.”
Adaptive Instructional Systems
Park, O.-C., & Lee, J. (2007) · doi:10.4324/9780203880869.ch37 · Cited by 220
“, Bloom, 1984; Kulik, 1982) is due to the adaptive nature of the individualized instruction. The long history of thoughts and admonitions about adapting instruction to individual student’s needs has been documented by many researchers (e.g., Como & Snow, 1986; Federico, 1980; Reiser, 1987; Tobias, 1989). Since at leas…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPersonalizing robot tutors to individuals' learning differences
Leyzberg, D., Spaulding, S., & Scassellati, B. (2014) · Proceedings of the 2014 ACM/IEEE international conference on Human-robot interaction · doi:10.1145/2559636.2559671 · Cited by 223
“In education research, there is a widely-cited result called “Bloom’s two sigma” that characterizes the differences in learning outcomes between students who receive one-on-one tutoring and those who receive traditional classroom instruction [1].”
BackgroundAI Tutoring Outperforms Active Learning
Kestin*, G., Miller*, K., Klales, A., Milbourne, T., & Ponti, G. (2024) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4243877/v1 · Cited by 214
Using Flipped Classroom Approach to Explore Deep Learning in Large Classrooms
Danker, B. (2015) · IAFOR Journal of Education · doi:10.22492/ije.3.1.10 · Cited by 213
“According to Bloom (1984), “an average student who receives one-on-one attention is enabled by constant feedback and a corrective process, and can jump into the 98th percentile of the student population in the academic achievement realm” (Houston and Lin, 2012).”
BackgroundLovett, M. C., Meyer, O., & Thille, C. (2008) · Journal of Interactive Media in Education · doi:10.5334/2008-14 · Cited by 209
“Usually, that kind of effectiveness or efficiency effect would be the result of individualized, human tutored instruction (e.g., Bloom, 1984) and yet, we had more than twenty students in a class that met for less than two hours per week, showing such results.”
BackgroundHuman-Robot Interaction: An Introduction
Bartneck, C., Belpaeme, T., Eyssel, F., Kanda, T., Keijsers, M., & Šabanović, S. (2020) · doi:10.1017/9781108676649 · Cited by 211
Artificial intelligence-enabled adaptive learning platforms: A review
Tan, L. Y., Hu, S., Yeo, D. J., & Cheong, K. H. (2025) · Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2025.100429 · Cited by 207
Collaborative online distance learning: Issues for future practice and research
Bernard, R. M., & de Rubalcava, B. R. (2000) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/0158791000210205 · Cited by 205
Informing Progress: Insights on Personalized Learning Implementation and Effects
Pane, J. F., Steiner, E. A., Baird, M., Hamilton, L. S., & Pane, J. (2017) · RAND Corporation eBooks · doi:10.7249/rr2042 · Cited by 205
Rashid, L. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11195343 · Cited by 204
Affect and Engagement in Game-BasedLearning Environments
Sabourin, J. L., & Lester, J. C. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/t-affc.2013.27 · Cited by 207
“One-to-one tutoring has long been considered the gold standard of effective instruction by demonstrating significant improvements in student learning over the typical classroom setting [19].”
BackgroundRobot education peers in a situated primary school study: Personalisation promotes child learning
Baxter, P. E., Ashurst, E. J., Read, R., Kennedy, J., & Belpaeme, T. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0178126 · Cited by 220
“A range of evidence comes together to support this perspective: it is known that one-to-one tutoring leads to significant learning improvements [5], classroom engagement is a predictor for peer acceptance in later years in young children [6], and that personalised social and academic support has…”
BackgroundA Review of Competency‐Based Learning: Tools, Assessments, and Recommendations
Henri, M., Johnson, M., & Nepal, B. P. (2017) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20180 · Cited by 242
“Mastery learning focuses on achieving a certain level of competency before learning subsequent information (Tyler, 2013) and as such has been widely investigated as a strategy for improving student outcomes (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundUsing Latent Semantic Analysis to Evaluate the Contributions of Students in AutoTutor
Graesser, A. C., Hastings, P., Wiemer-Hastings, K., Harter, D., Tutoring Research Group Tutoring Research Group, & Person, N. K. (2000) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1076/1049-4820(200008)8:2;1-b;ft129 · Cited by 198
“Human-to-human tutoring enhances learning by .4 to 2.3 standard deviation units compared to classroom controls and other suitable controls (Bloom, 1984; Cohen et al., 1982).”
BackgroundInfluentialCan Tutors Monitor Students' Understanding Accurately?
Michelene, T. H., Siler, S. A., & Jeong, H. (2004) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2203_4 · Cited by 197
“3 SD above the average student in a traditional transmission-based classroom (Bloom, 1984; Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982).”
BackgroundCakic, V. (2009) · Journal of Medical Ethics · doi:10.1136/jme.2009.030882 · Cited by 194
Chunking models of expertise: implications for education
Gobet, F. R. (2005) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1110 · Cited by 192
Profiles of effective tutors in problem‐based learning: scaffolding student learning
de Grave, W. S., Dolmans, D. H. J. M., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (1999) · Medical Education · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.1999.00492.x · Cited by 190
Consolidation and Transfer of Learning After Observing Hand Gesture
Cook, S. W., Duffy, R. G., & Fenn, K. M. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12097 · Cited by 190
“Previous work has shown that students learn more when they receive individualized, rather than group-level, instruction (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundRecent Advances in Conversational Intelligent Tutoring Systems
Rus, V., D’Mello, S. K., Hu, X., & Graesser, A. C. (2013) · AI Magazine · doi:10.1609/aimag.v34i3.2485 · Cited by 199
The Roles of Artificial Intelligence in Education: Current Progress and Future Prospects
McArthur, D., Lewis, M. W., & Bishary, M. (2005) · i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology · doi:10.26634/jet.1.4.972 · Cited by 187
Current Trends in Educational Technology Research: The Study of Learning Environments
Winn, W. D. (2002) · Cited by 186
Ahlfeldt *, S., Mehta, S., & Sellnow, T. (2005) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/0729436052000318541 · Cited by 337
“It was found that IE methods had an average gain of 0.48 ±.0.14 SD, which was two standard deviations above the traditional course which received and average gain of 0.23 ±.0.04 SD. Bloom (1984, p. 4) states:”
InfluentialLepper, M. R., & Woolverton, M. (2002) · Improving Academic Achievement · doi:10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50010-5 · Cited by 180
A New Era of School Reform: Going Where the Research Takes Us.
Marzano, R. J. (2001) · Cited by 180
The Use of Peer Tutoring Strategies in Classroom Management and Educational Instruction
Greenwood, C. R., Carta, J. J., & Hall, R. V. (1988) · School Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/02796015.1988.12085342 · Cited by 176
Spanning seven orders of magnitude: a challenge for cognitive modeling
Anderson, J. R. (2002) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog2601_3 · Cited by 187
Active and Dynamic Self-Regulation of Learning Processes
Iran‐Nejad, A. (1990) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543060004573 · Cited by 180
“There is much evidence that academic learning seldom goes beyond committing facts and definitions to memory (Bloom, 1984; diSibio, 1982; Schmeck, 1988a, 1988b; Spiro, 1977).”
BackgroundCraig, S. D., Sullins, J., Witherspoon, A. M., & Gholson, B. (2006) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci2404_4 · Cited by 174
“Bloom (1984) reviewed evidence showing that, when compared to classroom controls, accomplished human tutors produce gains of nearly 2.0 standard deviation units, or about two letter grades.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialWinn, W. D. (2002) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/a:1016068530070 · Cited by 270
Sayed, W. S., Noeman, A. M., Abdellatif, A., Abdel-Razek, M., Badawy, M. G., Hamed, A., & El-Tantawy, S. (2022) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-022-13076-8 · Cited by 169
“Yet, the impracticality of their application, in conventional classroom teaching and teachers-to-students ratio, has always been a limitation [9].”
BackgroundIntelligent tutoring systems for programming education: a systematic review
Crow, T., Luxton-Reilly, A., & Wuensche, B. (2018) · Proceedings of the 20th Australasian Computing Education Conference · doi:10.1145/3160489.3160492 · Cited by 166
“3160492 has been well established with experiments involving human tutors [3].”
BackgroundIntelligent Tutoring Systems: A Comprehensive Historical Survey with Recent Developments
Alkhatlan, A., & Kalita, J. K. (2019) · International Journal of Computer Applications · doi:10.5120/ijca2019918451 · Cited by 243
The case of classroom robots: teachers’ deliberations on the ethical tensions
Serholt, S., Barendregt, W., Vasalou, A., Alves‐Oliveira, P., Jones, A., Petisca, S., & Paiva, A. (2016) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-016-0667-2 · Cited by 165
Teaching Tactics and Dialog in AutoTutor
Graesser, A. C., & Harter, D. (2001) · Cited by 165
Qualities of classroom observation systems
Bell, C. A., Dobbelaer, M., Klette, K., & Visscher, A. (2018) · School Effectiveness and School Improvement · doi:10.1080/09243453.2018.1539014 · Cited by 134
Paradigm Shifts and Instructional Technology
Koschmann, T. D. (1996) · OpenSIUC (Southern Illinois University Carbondale) · Cited by 162
Five Common but Questionable Principles of Multimedia Learning
Clark, R. E., & Feldon, D. F. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.007 · Cited by 162
“Equally interesting is that when the new methods were compared with mastery methods (Bloom, 1984) they produced a 40 % increase in learning.”
MethodA Theoretical Foundation for the Development of Pedagogical Tasks in Computer Mediated Communication
Salaberry, M. R. (1996) · CALICO Journal · doi:10.1558/cj.v14i1.5-34 · Cited by 161
“Bloom (1984) has shown that the vast majority of students (approximately 98 percent) do better when they receive private tutoring instead of classroom instruction.”
BackgroundSchooling and cognitive development: Is there a season for learning?
Heyns, B. (1987) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1987.tb01448.x · Cited by 164
Kestin, G., Miller, K., Klales, A., Milbourne, T., & Ponti, G. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-97652-6 · Cited by 214
“Key practices include (i) facilitating active learning 11,19 , (ii) managing cognitive load 4 , (iii) promoting a growth mindset 15,16 , (iv) scaffolding content 20 , (v) ensuring accuracy of information and feedback, (vi) delivering such feedback and information in a targeted and timely fashion 21…”
InfluentialSuccess for All: First-Year Outcomes of a Comprehensive Plan for Reforming Urban Education
Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. A., Karweit, N. L., Livermon, B. J., & Dolan, L. J. (1990) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312027002255 · Cited by 159
Evaluation of an exercise‐based treatment for children with reading difficulties
Reynolds, D., Nicolson, R. I., & Hambly, H. (2003) · Dyslexia · doi:10.1002/dys.235 · Cited by 157
Murray, T. (1998) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1207/s15327809jls0701_2 · Cited by 157
“because both the content and style of the instruction can be continuously adapted to best meet the needs of the situation (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundTutoring: Guided Learning by Doing
Merrill, D. C., Reiser, B. J., Merrill, S. K., & Landes, S. (1995) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci1303_1 · Cited by 160
BiLAT: A Game-Based Environment for Practicing Negotiation in a Cultural Context
Kim, J. M., Hill, R. W., Durlach, P. J., Lane, H. C., Forbell, E., Core, M. G., Marsella, S., Pynadath, D. V., & Hart, J. (2009) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2009-19(3)03 · Cited by 155
“Know what you must accomplish, when you should escalate and when you should simply walk away (Clark, 2005) The above described principles and procedures are themselves declarative and procedural knowledge that has been codified into an easily expressible form.”
BackgroundGRAESSER, A., & McNAMARA, D. (2010) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2010.515933 · Cited by 153
“However, available studies show effect sizes of 0.8 to 2.0 (Bloom, 1984; Chi et al., 2008; Graesser et al., in press; VanLehn et al., 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialArtificial Intelligence in Education
Holmes, W. (2020) · Encyclopedia of Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-10576-1_107 · Cited by 153
What Is Special About Special Education for Students with Learning Disabilities?
Vaughn, S. R., & Linan‐Thompson, S. (2003) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/00224669030370030301 · Cited by 152
“Several studies offer support for the effectiveness of one-on-one instruction, particularly with students who have been identified as at risk or as having reading or learning disabilities (Bloom, 1984; Juel, 1991; Wasik & Slavin, 1993).”
BackgroundKnowledge Taught in School: What Is Remembered?
Semb, G. B., & Ellis, J. A. (1994) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543064002253 · Cited by 151
Peer-Assisted Learning in Physical Education: A Review of Theory and Research
Ward, P., Lee, M.-A., & Lee, M.-A. (2005) · Journal of Teaching in Physical Education · doi:10.1123/jtpe.24.3.205 · Cited by 150
Dynamic student modelling in an intelligent tutor for LISP programming
Reiser, B. J., Anderson, J. R., & Farrell, R. (1985) · International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence · Cited by 150
The effectiveness of a one-year online mentoring program for girls in STEM
Stoeger, H., Duan, X., Schirner, S., Greindl, T., & Ziegler, A. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.032 · Cited by 103
“Some researchers have even deemed it the gold standard of pedagogy and learning (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundModeling self-efficacy in intelligent tutoring systems: An inductive approach
McQuiggan, S. W., Mott, B., & Lester, J. C. (2007) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-007-9040-y · Cited by 155
“ITSs can facilitate mastery learning (Bloom, 1984) by creating experiences in which the difficulty of the task or specific problems is adapted to the individual student.”
BackgroundHe, Y., Swenson, S., & Lents, N. H. (2012) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/ed200685p · Cited by 146
Tutoring Techniques in Algebra
McArthur, D., Stasz, C., & Zmuidzinas, M. (1990) · Cognition and Instruction · doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0703_2 · Cited by 146
Eck, R. N. V., & Dempsey, J. R. (2002) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02505023 · Cited by 145
Xu, Z., Wijekumar, K. K., Ramírez, G., Hu, X., & Irey, R. C. (2019) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12758 · Cited by 181
Clabaugh, C., Mahajan, K., Jain, S., Pakkar, R., Becerra, D., Shi, Z., Deng, E., Lee, R., Ragusa, G., & Matarić, M. J. (2019) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2019.00110 · Cited by 156
“Benefits of personalization are well established across the domains of education (Bloom, 1984; Anderson 29 et al., 2001) and healthcare (Beevers and McGeary, 2012; Cesuroglu et al.”
BackgroundGrouping Practices and Reading Outcomes for Students with Disabilities
Elbaum, B. E., Vaughn, S. R., Hughes, M. T., & Moody, S. W. (1999) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440299906500309 · Cited by 145
Designing groups in problem-based learning to promote problem-solving skill and self-directedness
Lohman, M. C., & Finkelstein, M. W. (2000) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1023/a:1003927228005 · Cited by 144
“Bloom’s explanation for these findings was that the continual feedback and corrective process that occurs between instructors and students in tutorials provides the reinforcement and encouragement students require to stay actively involved in the learning process ( Bloom, 1984 ).”
BackgroundResultThe Cognitive and Academic Benefits of Music to Children: Facts and fiction
Črnčec, R., Wilson, S. J., & Prior, M. R. (2006) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410500342542 · Cited by 145
“…music has an intrinsic value as a great cultural invention, it has the ability to function as a vehicle for emotional expression and communication (Reimer, 1999; Trevarthen & Malloch, 2002), and is a positive activity that can be participated in by children of all cultures, ages, and abilities.”
BackgroundGott, S. P. (1988) · Review of Research in Education · doi:10.3102/0091732x015001097 · Cited by 154
The Effectiveness of Web-Based Instruction: An Initial Inquiry
Olson, T. M., & Wisher, R. A. (2002) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v3i2.103 · Cited by 140
“If these individual learning systems are further complemented by collaborative learning tools and online mentoring from regular instructors, effect sizes on the order of two standard deviation units, as suggested by Bloom (1984), may someday be possible.”
BackgroundUsing Evaluation to Shape ITS Design: Results and Experiences with SQL-Tutor
Mitrović, A., Martin, B., & Mayo, M. (2002) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1023/a:1015022619307 · Cited by 139
“For example, (Anderson et al. 1995) report an effect size of 1.0 in studies that lasted for one semester, and Bloom (1984) reports an effect size of 2.0 for one-on-one human tutoring.”
BackgroundInfluentialInforming and Performing: A Study Comparing Adaptive Learning to Traditional Learning
Coffin Murray, M., & Pérez, J. (2015) · InSITE Conference · doi:10.28945/2140 · Cited by 139
A Survey of Robot-Assisted Language Learning (RALL)
Randall, N. (2019) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3345506 · Cited by 139
“While learners might find it more fun and comfortable to interact in a group [107], those who receive one-on-one tutoring usually score much better than those who receive classroom education [17].”
BackgroundTeaching scientific thinking skills: Students and computers coaching each other
Reif, F., & Scott, L. A. (1999) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.19130 · Cited by 138
Wauters, K., Desmet, P., & Noortgate, W. V. D. (2010) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00368.x · Cited by 137
“Therefore, adaptive learning systems are developed aimed at optimizing learning conditions (Bloom 1984; Wasson 1993; Lee 2001; Verdú et al. 2008).”
BackgroundThe Teaching and Learning Toolkit
Higgins, S. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781139519618.004 · Cited by 136
Baghaei, N., Mitrović, A., & Irwin, W. (2007) · International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning · doi:10.1007/s11412-007-9018-0 · Cited by 135
“The common method to calculate it in the ITS community is to subtract the control group’s mean score from the experimental group’s mean score and divide by the standard deviation of the scores of the control group ( Bloom 1984 ).”
MethodPrivate Tutoring: how prevalent and effective is it?
Ireson, J. (2004) · London Review of Education · doi:10.1080/1474846042000229458 · Cited by 134
“Bloom (1984) found that students in receipt of tutoring in school spent more time on task and had more positive attitudes towards learning, when compared with students who followed normal lessons.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHeterogeneity of variance in experimental studies: A challenge to conventional interpretations.
Bryk, A. S., & Raudenbush, S. W. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.3.396 · Cited by 134
“Further, in many cases, the nature of these differential effects is substantively interesting and can be crucial to evaluating the efficacy of treatments (e.g., see Bloom, 1984; Bryk, 1978).”
BackgroundCook, P., Dodge, K., Farkas, G., Fryer, R., Guryan, J., Ludwig, J., Mayer, S., Pollack, H., & Steinberg, L. (2014) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19862 · Cited by 130
Correlates of leisure‐time reading
Greaney, V., & Hegarty, M. (1987) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.1987.tb00278.x · Cited by 133
Proactive and reactive engagement of artificial intelligence methods for education: a review
Mallik, S., & Gangopadhyay, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2023.1151391 · Cited by 139
“More focused effort on developing computer-based tutoring systems in particular started following the findings of Bloom [109] - students who received tutoring in addition to group classes fared two standard deviations better than those who only participated in group classes.”
MethodRevisioning models of instructional development
Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (1997) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299731 · Cited by 131
Rosé, C. P., & Ferschke, O. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-016-0107-y · Cited by 145
“Interest in discussion-based learning in the AI in Education community is typically motivated by the famous finding that expert human tutors are highly successful at educating students (Bloom 1984; Cohen et al. 1982).”
BackgroundMean What You Say: Defining and Integrating Personalized, Blended and Competency Education.
Patrick, S. K., Kennedy, K., & Powell, A. (2013) · Cited by 128
Metacognition reconsidered: Implications for intervention research
Reeve, R. A., & Brown, A. L. (1985) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00912721 · Cited by 128
“In a recent paper, Bloom (1954) suggested that one of the most challenging problems for educational researchers is to devise group teaching techniques that are as effective as oneto one tutoring.”
BackgroundApplying Cognitive Theory to Statistics Instruction
Lovett, M. C., & Greenhouse, J. B. (2000) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.2000.10474545 · Cited by 128
“Similarly, the sizable learning gains exhibited by students learning from human tutors is largely attributed to the rich feedback tutors can give (Bloom 1984).”
BackgroundConstraint-Based Tutors: A Success Story
Mitrović, A., Mayo, M., Suraweera, P., & Martin, B. (2001) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-45517-5_103 · Cited by 127
“It is well known that one-on-one human tutoring is much more effective than traditional classroom instruction, providing an increase of two standard deviations in learning performance [4].”
BackgroundAttitudes, Study Habits, and Academic Performance of Junior High School Students in Mathematics
Etcuban, J. O., Capuno, R. G., Necesario, R., Espina, R. C., Padillo, G. G., & Manguilimotan, R. P. (2019) · International Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education · doi:10.29333/iejme/5768 · Cited by 124
“Good study habits are the productive ones, which help in improving the academic performance of the students or produce positive results (Bloom, 1984; Ogbodo, 2010).”
BackgroundKERMIT: A Constraint-Based Tutor for Database Modeling
Suraweera, P., & Mitrović, A. (2002) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-47987-2_41 · Cited by 124
“The common method to calculate the effect size in the ITS community is to subtract the control group’s mean gains score from the experimental group’s mean gain score and divide by the standard deviation of the gain scores of the control group [ 2 ].”
MethodModelling Human Teaching Tactics and Strategies for Tutoring Systems: 14 Years On
du Boulay, B., & Luckin, R. (2015) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-015-0053-0 · Cited by 124
“The paper found that not all of the reasons above applied in practice, that intelligent tutoring systems were now in some respects approaching the effectiveness of “ordinary” human tutors and that the effectiveness of the latter were rather less than the gold-standard of individual expert tutoring (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundPerceptive animated interfaces: first steps toward a new paradigm for human-computer interaction
Cole, R. A., Vuuren, S. V., Pellom, B. L., Hacıoğlu, K., Ma, J., Movellan, J. R., Schwartz, S., Wade-Stein, D., Ward, W., & Yan, J. (2003) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2003.817143 · Cited by 123
“…Object Identifier 10.1109/JPROC.2003.817143 Keywords—Animation, conversational agents, dialogue system, electronic books, human–computer interaction, interactive books, literacy teaching, machine perception, spoken language, tools for cognitive disabilities, virtual humans, vocabulary tutors.”
BackgroundInfluentialLearner modelling: systematic review of the literature from the last 5 years
Abyaa, A., Idrissi, M. K., & Bennani, S. (2019) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-018-09644-1 · Cited by 131
“There has long been a consensus that individualized learning is the most effective learning approach (Oen and Sweany 1971; Bloom 1984).”
BackgroundA Systematic Literature Review of Intelligent Tutoring Systems With Dialogue in Natural Language
Paladines, J., & Ramírez, J. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3021383 · Cited by 143
“For reference, students working one-on-one with expert human tutors often score 2.0 higher than students working on the same topic in classrooms [106].”
BackgroundInfluentialAn Intelligent Tutoring System for Entity Relationship Modelling
Suraweera, P., & Mitrović, A. (2004) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2004-14(3-4)07 · Cited by 122
Cohen, G. L., & Steele, C. M. (2002) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012064455-1/50018-x · Cited by 123
Why Students Learn More From Dialogue- Than Monologue-Videos: Analyses of Peer Interactions
Michelene, T. H., Kang, S., & Yaghmourian, D. L. (2016) · Journal of the Learning Sciences · doi:10.1080/10508406.2016.1204546 · Cited by 131
“79, based on a meta-review (VanLehn, 2011), and the level of learning achieved by tutees is often considered the gold standard (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe link between flipped and active learning: a scoping review
Li, R., Lund, A., & Nordsteien, A. (2021) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2021.1943655 · Cited by 152
“In our study, 14% of the 155 included articles refer to Bloom ([1956] 1984) taxonomy.”
BackgroundThe life cycle of large language models in education: A framework for understanding sources of bias
Lee, J., Hicke, Y., Yu, R., Brooks, C., & Kizilcec, R. F. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13505 · Cited by 119
Nicholson, P. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-4914-9_1 · Cited by 116
Research on Group-Based Mastery Learning Programs: A Meta-Analysis
Guskey, T. R., & Pigott, T. (1988) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1988.10885824 · Cited by 116
Brown, B. W., & Saks, D. H. (1986) · American Journal of Education · doi:10.1086/443863 · Cited by 114
Cognitive Perspectives in Psychology
Winn, W. (2013) · doi:10.4324/9781410609519-11 · Cited by 162
“The evidence that this is the case is compelling (Bloom, 1984, 1987; Kulik, 1990a, 1990b). However, enough time typically comes to mean the length of a unit, module or semester and mastery means mastery of performance not of high-level skills such as problem solving. There is a considerable body of opinion that expert…”
BackgroundInfluentialLearning Theories for Engineering Education Practice
Newstetter, W., & Svinicki, M. D. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139013451.005 · Cited by 119
Metadata
- Authors
- BLOOM, B. S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- BLOOM, BENJAMIN S.
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1984-06
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 4-16
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2172010324
- Cited by
- 2,734
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 195 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 131 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 129 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 112 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 39.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- group instruction, one-on-one tutoring, learning mastery, conventional instruction, corrective procedures, academic performance, tutoring effectiveness
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
