The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring
Abstract
T w o University of Chicago doctoral students in education, Anania (1982, 1983) and Burke (1984), completed dissertations in which they compared student learning under the following three conditions of instruction: 1. Conventional. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. Tests are given periodically for marking the students. 2. Mastery Learning. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. The instruction is the same as in the conventional class (usually with the same teacher). Formative tests (the same tests used with the conventional group) are given for feedback followed by corrective procedures and parallel formative tests to determine the extent to which the students have mastered the subject matter. 3. Tutoring. Students learn the subject matter with a good tutor for each student (or for two or three students simultaneously). This tutoring instruction is followed periodically by formative tests, feedback-corrective procedures, and parallel formative tests as in the mastery learning classes. It should be pointed out that the need for corrective work under tutoring is very small.
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In the citing paper
“skills vary within individuals based on goals, emotional states, and contextual supportsproducing a child's developmental range”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“a child's performance within that range can be optimized under conditions of high, personalized support”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“Bloom found that students who received effective one-on-one tutoring through a mastery learning framework performed two standard deviations better than students who did not.”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“One-to-one tutoring is an effective teaching method (Bloom, 1984).”
From Towards the Pedagogical Steering of Large Language Models for Tutoring: A Case Study with Modeling Productive Failure (2025) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“We believe that the increased learning from structured AI tutoring is largely due to its ability to offer personalized feedback on demand—just as one-on-one tutoring from a (human) expert is superior to classroom instruction15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“While the advantages of personalized instruction are clear, this model of education cannot scale to meet the needs of a large number of students15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Working with an expert personal tutor is generally regarded as the most efficient form of education15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“More focused effort on developing computer-based tutoring systems in particular started following the findings of Bloom (Bloom, 1984)—students who received tutoring in addition to group classes fared two standard deviations better than those who only participated in group classes.”
From Proactive and reactive engagement of artificial intelligence methods for education: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
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Lewis, D. R., Harburg, E., Gerber, E. M., & Easterday, M. W. (2015) · Creativity and Cognition · doi:10.1145/2757226.2757248 · Cited by 22
When Mastery Goals Meet Mastery Learning: Administrator, Teacher, and Student Perceptions
Emery, A. A., Sanders, M., Anderman, L. H., & Yu, S. L. (2017) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2017.1341863 · Cited by 28
“In initial studies, for example, Bloom and his doctoral students (Anania, 1982; Bloom, 1984; Burke, 1983) compared conventional and mastery-learning–teaching methods in four samples of students from different grades and in different subjects.”
BackgroundAnalyzing the Efficacy of ECoach in Supporting Gateway Course Success Through Tailored Support
Matz, R. L., Schulz, K. W., Hanley, E., Derry, H. A., Hayward, B., Koester, B. P., Hayward, C., & McKay, T. A. (2021) · International Conference on Learning Analytics and Knowledge (LAK) · doi:10.1145/3448139.3448160 · Cited by 23
“With roots in tailored tutoring [5], these adaptive platforms use tailoring systems based on course learning objectives,”
MethodGenerative artificial intelligence in education: analysis of trends and prospects
Андреевна, П. Е., Леонидович, О. П., Gorlacheva, E. N., & Faizullin, R. V. (2024) · Vocational education and labour market · doi:10.52944/port.2024.58.3.001 · Cited by 37
Vail, A. K., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E., & Lester, J. C. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-20267-9_22 · Cited by 22
“Adaptive learning environments, specifically intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs), are inspired by the adaptation of human tutors to student learners [5,12].”
BackgroundSelf-Driven Mastery in Massive Open Online Courses
Do, C. B., Chen, Z., Brandman, R., & Koller, D. (2013) · MOOCs FORUM · doi:10.1089/mooc.2013.0003 · Cited by 22
Designing for Automatic Affect Inference in Learning Environments
Afzal, S., & Robinson, P. (2011) · Educational Technology & Society · Cited by 22
The Effects of Animated Agents on Students' Achievement and Attitudes.
UNAL-COLAK, F., & Ozan, Ö. (2012) · DergiPark (Istanbul University) · doi:10.17718/tojde.95832 · Cited by 22
“Bloom (1984) suggests that one-on-one tutoring can significantly improve learner performance.”
BackgroundTowards MOOCs and Their Role in Engineering Education
Iqbal, S., Zang, X., Zhu, Y., Hussain, D., Zhao, J., Gulzar, M. M., & Rasheed, S. (2015) · International Conference on Information Technology in Medicine and Education · doi:10.1109/itme.2015.89 · Cited by 22
“Famous American educational psychologist, Benjamin Bloom showed us that one-to-one learning works best [21].”
BackgroundUsability evaluation of intelligent tutoring system
Chughtai, R., Zhang, S., & Craig, S. D. (2015) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931215591076 · Cited by 22
“Students receiving human tutoring as compared to conventional training have been shown to have higher learning performance (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundReliability and factor structure of the Attitude Toward Tutoring Agent Scale (ATTAS)
Adcock, A. B., & Eck, R. N. V. (2005) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 22
Siler, S. A., & VanLehn, K. A. (2009) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2009-19(1)04 · Cited by 22
“Face-to-face human-human tutoring is one of the most effective learning contexts (Bloom, 1984; Cohen et al., 1982).”
BackgroundThe Andes Physics Tutoring System: An Experiment in Freedom
VanLehn, K. A., van de Sande, B., Shelby, R., & Gershman, S. (2010) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14363-2_21 · Cited by 22
“Moreover, they wanted all students to do the same homework problems, so Andes was not allowed to implement mastery learning (Bloom 1984) or macro-adaptation (Shute 1993) by selecting different physics problems for different students.”
BackgroundLarge Group Problem-based Learning: A possible solution for the ‘2 sigma problem’
Barrows, H. S., Myers, A., Williams, R. G., & Moticka, E. J. (1986) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/01421598609028991 · Cited by 22
Rose garden promises of intelligent tutoring systems: Blossom or thorn
Shute, V. J. (1991) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · Cited by 22
Teacher Preparation, Teacher Empowerment, and Reflective Inquiry: A Critical Perspective.
O’Loughlin, M. J., & Campbell, M. (1988) · Teacher education quarterly (Claremont, Calif.) · Cited by 22
Supporting Constructive Learning with a Feedback Planner
Moore, J. D., Core, M. G., & Zinn, C. (2000) · Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) · Cited by 22
Pareto, L., Ekström, S., & Serholt, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2022.875704 · Cited by 26
“Substantial evidence indicates that human tutoring is effective, where both participants gain an understanding (Bloom, 1984; Topping, 2000; Chi et al., 2001; Topping et al., 2003; Roscoe & Chi, 2007).”
BackgroundJuan, Y., Lee, Y., & Wu, J. (2026) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2026.105564 · Cited by 32
Borg, E., & Deane, M. (2011) · Teaching in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/13562517.2010.546525 · Cited by 21
“As has been known for a long time, one-to-one tutorial support helps students make the transition to university writing more effectively than classroom teaching (Bloom 1984; Graesser, Person, and Magliano 1995; Leibowitz et al. 1997).”
BackgroundAdaptive Learning: The Premise, Promise, and Pitfalls
Johanes, P., & Lagerstrom, L. (2018) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--27538 · Cited by 26
“[5] More recently, a metaanalysis by VanLehn has questioned whether the difference is closer to one standard deviation”
BackgroundLearning from contrasts: first-year students writing themselves into academic literacy
Roald, G. M., Wallin, P., Hybertsen, I. D., & Stenöien, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Further and Higher Education · doi:10.1080/0309877x.2020.1813264 · Cited by 21
Metadata
- Authors
- BLOOM, B. S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- BLOOM, BENJAMIN S.
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1984-06
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 4-16
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2172010324
- Cited by
- 2,734
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 195 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 131 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 129 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 112 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 39.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- group instruction, one-on-one tutoring, learning mastery, conventional instruction, corrective procedures, academic performance, tutoring effectiveness
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