The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring
Abstract
T w o University of Chicago doctoral students in education, Anania (1982, 1983) and Burke (1984), completed dissertations in which they compared student learning under the following three conditions of instruction: 1. Conventional. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. Tests are given periodically for marking the students. 2. Mastery Learning. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. The instruction is the same as in the conventional class (usually with the same teacher). Formative tests (the same tests used with the conventional group) are given for feedback followed by corrective procedures and parallel formative tests to determine the extent to which the students have mastered the subject matter. 3. Tutoring. Students learn the subject matter with a good tutor for each student (or for two or three students simultaneously). This tutoring instruction is followed periodically by formative tests, feedback-corrective procedures, and parallel formative tests as in the mastery learning classes. It should be pointed out that the need for corrective work under tutoring is very small.
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In the citing paper
“skills vary within individuals based on goals, emotional states, and contextual supportsproducing a child's developmental range”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“a child's performance within that range can be optimized under conditions of high, personalized support”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“Bloom found that students who received effective one-on-one tutoring through a mastery learning framework performed two standard deviations better than students who did not.”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“One-to-one tutoring is an effective teaching method (Bloom, 1984).”
From Towards the Pedagogical Steering of Large Language Models for Tutoring: A Case Study with Modeling Productive Failure (2025) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“We believe that the increased learning from structured AI tutoring is largely due to its ability to offer personalized feedback on demand—just as one-on-one tutoring from a (human) expert is superior to classroom instruction15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“While the advantages of personalized instruction are clear, this model of education cannot scale to meet the needs of a large number of students15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Working with an expert personal tutor is generally regarded as the most efficient form of education15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“More focused effort on developing computer-based tutoring systems in particular started following the findings of Bloom (Bloom, 1984)—students who received tutoring in addition to group classes fared two standard deviations better than those who only participated in group classes.”
From Proactive and reactive engagement of artificial intelligence methods for education: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
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Interactivity and Expectation: Eliciting Learning Oriented Behavior with Tutorial Dialogue Systems
Rosé, C. P., & Torrey, C. (2005) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11555261_28 · Cited by 18
“Human tutors are highly successful at eliciting elaborated explanations from students [21,10] and highly successful at educating students [7,9].”
BackgroundDialog Move Generation and Conversation Management in AutoTutor
Person, N. K., Graesser, A. C., Harter, D., & Mathews, E. (2000) · Cited by 18
Going Beyond the Problem Given: How Human Tutors Use Post-practice Discussions to Support Transfer
Katz, S., & Allbritton, D. W. (2010) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-47987-2_65 · Cited by 18
“One-on-one human tutoring is a case in point, although several studies in recent years have made significant strides in uncovering some of the reasons for the observed two-sigma effect of tutoring over classroom instruction (Bloom, 1984)—for example, co-construction of knowledge (Chi, Siler, Jeong, Yamauchi, & Hausman…”
Developing a Consulting Program in Special Education: Implementation and Interventions
Reisberg, L., & Wolf, R. E. (1986) · Focus on Exceptional Children · doi:10.17161/foec.v19i3.7492 · Cited by 18
“Mastery learning (Bloom, 1984) is an instructional proce-”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCommunication and Cues in the Functional Cognition of the Mentally Retarded
Turnure, J. E. (1985) · International review of research in mental retardation · doi:10.1016/s0074-7750(08)60232-3 · Cited by 18
Intelligent student systems:an application of viewpoints to intelligent learning environments
Nichols, D. M. (1993) · Lancaster EPrints (Lancaster University) · Cited by 18
Process drama in the virtual world – a survey
El‐Nasr, M. S., Vasilakos, A. V., & Robinson, J. (2008) · International Journal of Arts and Technology · doi:10.1504/ijart.2008.019875 · Cited by 17
“Bloom states that knowledge acquisition is more effective when learners are given one-on-one feedback and coaching by a teacher (Bloom, 84).”
BackgroundFletcher, J. D., & Sottilare, R. A. (2017) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-017-0147-y · Cited by 20
“One view is that ITS development is motivated by the empirically evident benefits of human tutoring (e.g., Bloom 1984; Graesser et al. 2011; VanLehn 2011) and a long-standing desire to make these benefits more widely accessible and affordable than those delivered by individual humans (Fletcher…”
BackgroundCompetency Based Assessment in Dynamics
DeGoede, K. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--30212 · Cited by 17
“They defined competency-based learning (CBL) as “an outcome-based, student-centered form of instruction where students progress to more advanced work upon mastering the necessary prerequisite content and skills” [1-4].”
BackgroundMorales-Urrutia, E., Ocaña, J. M. S., Pérez-Marín, D., & Pizarro, C. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3049187 · Cited by 17
“Private tutoring with a learning companion has proved to be more efficient than only learning in classroom with more students as they had different learning 5 https://developers.google.com/blockly rhythms and the teacher could not adapt the interaction to the needs of each individual student [30].”
BackgroundEthics and AI in Higher Education: A Study on Students’ Perceptions
da Silva, M., Ferro, M., Mourão, É., Seixas, E. F. R., Viterbo, J., & Salgado, L. C. D. C. (2024) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-54235-0_14 · Cited by 21
There Are Multiple Paths to Personalized Education, and They Should Be Combined
Brod, G. (2024) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09637214241242459 · Cited by 22
“Learning gains in one-on-one tutoring with expert human tutors were found to be substantially higher than in various forms of group instruction (Bloom, 1984; Cohen et al., 1982).”
BackgroundDriesnack, S., Rücker, F., Dietze, N., Bondarenko, A., Pletz, M. W., & Viehweger, A. (2024) · JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance · doi:10.1093/jacamr/dlae099 · Cited by 17
Online TuTOring in The CalCulus:
van de Sande, C., & Leinhard, G. (2009) · doi:10.4000/educationdidactique.695 · Cited by 17
“In what has become a classic piece of literature in the field, Bloom (1984) documented that students learning from tutors in this way perform two standard deviations above students learning in a classroom situation.”
BackgroundTechnical and Ethical Issues in Indicator Systems
Fitz‐Gibbon, C. T., & Tymms, P. B. (2002) · Education Policy Analysis Archives · doi:10.14507/epaa.v10n6.2002 · Cited by 17
Feedback in technology‐based instruction: Learner preferences
Lefevre, D., & Cox, B. M. (2014) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12227 · Cited by 19
Thermo-Tutor: An Intelligent Tutoring System for thermodynamics
Mitrović, A., Williamson, C., Bebbington, A., Mathews, M., Suraweera, P., Martin, B., Thomson, D., & Holland, J. (2011) · IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) · doi:10.1109/educon.2011.5773164 · Cited by 17
“Education research has shown that the best learning environment is oneto-one with an expert human teacher [1].”
BackgroundAmiruddin, M. H., Samad, N. B. A., & Othman, N. (2015) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.131 · Cited by 17
“Mastery learning theorists, especially (Bloom 1984), contend that MLS reduces the amount of time needed to achieve mastery.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAlmohammadi, K., Hagras, H., Alghazzawi, D., & Aldabbagh, G. A. (2016) · Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Research · doi:10.1515/jaiscr-2016-0008 · Cited by 17
Internet-based alternatives for equitable preparation, access, and success in gateway courses
Hickey, D. T., Robinson, J. K., Fiorini, S., & Feng, Y. (2019) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2019.100693 · Cited by 20
Süß, J. G., & Billingsley, W. H. (2012) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Software Engineering: Companion Proceedings (ICSE-Companion) · doi:10.1109/icse.2012.6227025 · Cited by 17
“We were aware that mere presentation or lecturing of content is one of the least effective methods of teaching [18], and sought a method of ensuring that the lecture slot for the course furthered our goal of getting students to experience professional practice.”
Metadata
- Authors
- BLOOM, B. S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- BLOOM, BENJAMIN S.
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1984-06
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 4-16
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2172010324
- Cited by
- 2,734
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 195 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 131 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 129 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 112 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 39.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- group instruction, one-on-one tutoring, learning mastery, conventional instruction, corrective procedures, academic performance, tutoring effectiveness
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