The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring
Abstract
T w o University of Chicago doctoral students in education, Anania (1982, 1983) and Burke (1984), completed dissertations in which they compared student learning under the following three conditions of instruction: 1. Conventional. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. Tests are given periodically for marking the students. 2. Mastery Learning. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. The instruction is the same as in the conventional class (usually with the same teacher). Formative tests (the same tests used with the conventional group) are given for feedback followed by corrective procedures and parallel formative tests to determine the extent to which the students have mastered the subject matter. 3. Tutoring. Students learn the subject matter with a good tutor for each student (or for two or three students simultaneously). This tutoring instruction is followed periodically by formative tests, feedback-corrective procedures, and parallel formative tests as in the mastery learning classes. It should be pointed out that the need for corrective work under tutoring is very small.
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In the citing paper
“skills vary within individuals based on goals, emotional states, and contextual supportsproducing a child's developmental range”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“a child's performance within that range can be optimized under conditions of high, personalized support”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“Bloom found that students who received effective one-on-one tutoring through a mastery learning framework performed two standard deviations better than students who did not.”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“One-to-one tutoring is an effective teaching method (Bloom, 1984).”
From Towards the Pedagogical Steering of Large Language Models for Tutoring: A Case Study with Modeling Productive Failure (2025) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“We believe that the increased learning from structured AI tutoring is largely due to its ability to offer personalized feedback on demand—just as one-on-one tutoring from a (human) expert is superior to classroom instruction15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“While the advantages of personalized instruction are clear, this model of education cannot scale to meet the needs of a large number of students15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Working with an expert personal tutor is generally regarded as the most efficient form of education15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“More focused effort on developing computer-based tutoring systems in particular started following the findings of Bloom (Bloom, 1984)—students who received tutoring in addition to group classes fared two standard deviations better than those who only participated in group classes.”
From Proactive and reactive engagement of artificial intelligence methods for education: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
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“Tutoring was selected as the mode of instruction for this project because of its well-known efficacy [15,16].”
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“The notion of personalized learning as especially effective is based on Bloom’s (1984) “two-sigma problem” (p.”
BackgroundBig data in education and the models that love them
Pardos, Z. A. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.11.006 · Cited by 38
“These systems were in large part inspired by the efficacy of one-on-one human tutoring, later shown to produce learning gains up to two grade levels, or two standard deviations above that accomplished with traditional one-to-many classroom instruction [8].”
BackgroundIntelligent Tutoring Systems for Continuous, Embedded Assessment
Kurt, V. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315086545-5 · Cited by 37
“ITS assessment was often developed with mastery learning in mind, and some ITS actually do implement mastery learning (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundKumar, A. N. (2002) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-47987-2_79 · Cited by 36
“It compares favorably with the result that individual human tutors can bring students 2 sigma above normal classroom instruction [5].”
BackgroundAnalyzing Posture and Affect in Task-Oriented Tutoring
Grafsgaard, J. F., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E., & Lester, J. C. (2012) · The Florida AI Research Society · Cited by 36
Predicting Facial Indicators of Confusion with Hidden Markov Models
Grafsgaard, J. F., Boyer, K., & Lester, J. C. (2011) · Affective Computing and Intelligent Interaction · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-24600-5_13 · Cited by 48
“One-on-one human tutoring is highly effective for student learning [1].”
BackgroundShebilske, W. L., Jordan, J. A., Goettl, B. P., & Paulus, L. E. (1998) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1518/001872098779649319 · Cited by 34
“A solid empirical foundation supports the claim that individually tailored instruction can be superior to group instruction (Bloom, 1984), and the promise of individualized instruction has been the basis of research on mastery learning, aptitudetreatment interactions, and intelligent tutoring systems.”
BackgroundAttali, Y., Laitusis, C. C., & Stone, E. (2015) · Educational and Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/0013164415612548 · Cited by 36
“However, in a critical review of the field, Bennett (2011) argues that the widely cited claims of the effectiveness of formative assessment on student achievement (Black & Wiliam, 1998; Bloom, 1984; Rodriguez, 2004) are not well grounded and that ‘‘the magnitude of commonly made quantitative claims for effectiveness i…”
BackgroundManaging the Incompetent Teacher.
Ritchie, J. B., Bridges, E. M., & Groves, B. R. (1987) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2392751 · Cited by 36
The Interaction Between Knowledge and Practice in the Acquisition of Cognitive Skills
Ohlsson, S. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-3172-2_5 · Cited by 34
“This belief is based on empirical investigations carried out in the pre-Word War U era (Brownell, 1947; Brownell & Moser, 1949). A detailed discussion of these simulation results and their relation to the empirical research has been presented elsewhere (Ohlsson, 1992a). This simulation exercise demonstrates that runna…”
BackgroundThe Geometry Proof Tutor: an “Intelligent” Computer-Based Tutor in The Classroom
Wertheimer, R. (1990) · Mathematics Teacher Learning and Teaching PK-12 · doi:10.5951/mt.83.4.0308 · Cited by 36
“Not surprisingly, one-on-one tutoring has been shown to be more effective than class room instruction (Bloom 1984).”
BackgroundTutorial Learning for the New Century
Bork, A. M. (2001) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1023/a:1016620611003 · Cited by 36
Guryan, J., Christenson, S., Cureton, A., Lai, I., Ludwig, J., Schwarz, C., Shirey, E., & Turner, M. C. (2021) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.22264 · Cited by 38
“To estimate the effect of having a C&C mentor, we use random assignment as an instrument for participation (Angrist, Imbens, & Rubin, 1996; Bloom, 1984).”
Yazidi, A., Mofrad, A. A., Goodwin, M., Hammer, H. L., & Arntzen, E. (2020) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-020-09624-3 · Cited by 35
“A few years later, a study is published demonstrating that individual tutoring is twice as effective as group teaching (Bloom 1984).”
BackgroundCulturally Responsive Personalized Learning: Recommendations for a Working Definition and Framework
Ober, T. M., Lehman, B. A., Gooch, R. M., Oluwalana, O., Solyst, J., Phelps, G., & Hamilton, L. S. (2023) · ETS Research Report Series · doi:10.1002/ets2.12372 · Cited by 60
Virvou, M. K., & Moundridou, M. (2001) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-44566-8_16 · Cited by 35
“[ 1 ]) to be one of the most effective methods of instruction.”
Tutoring Programs for Academically Underprepared College Students: A Review of the Literature
Hock, M. F., Deshler, D. D., & Schumaker, J. B. (1999) · Journal of College Reading and Learning · doi:10.1080/10790195.1999.10850073 · Cited by 35
Supporting Computer Science Curriculum: Exploring and Learning Linked Lists with iList
Fossati, D., Eugenio, B. D., Brown, C. W., Ohlsson, S., Cosejo, D. G., & Chen, L. (2009) · IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies · doi:10.1109/tlt.2009.21 · Cited by 35
“like traditional classroom-based information delivery [8].”
Optimization of Air Traffic Control Training at the Federal Aviation Administration Academy
Updegrove, J., & Jafer, S. (2017) · Aerospace · doi:10.3390/aerospace4040050 · Cited by 35
Using game-based negotiation mechanism to enhance students’ goal setting and regulation
Chen, Z. H., Lu, H.-D., & Chou, C. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.10.011 · Cited by 36
Innovative Trends in Flipped Teaching and Adaptive Learning
Sein-Echaluce, M. L., Fidalgo-Blanco, A., & Garcia-Penalvo, F. J. (2018) · Advances in educational technologies and instructional design book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-8142-0 · Cited by 35
“Despite being evident, Bloom’s study “2 sigma” (Bloom, 1984) showed that learning outcomes improve by 98%.”
BackgroundLee, D., Huh, Y., Lin, C., Reigeluth, C. M., & Lee, E. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-09937-y · Cited by 43
“The U.S. Department of Education (2012b) has recognized the two-sigma problem that Bloom (1984) identified, and has argued that CBSP can be implemented at affordable costs on a large scale with the recent advances in technology (U.S. Department of Education 2012b).”
Backgrounddel Olmo‐Muñoz, J., González‐Calero, J. A., Diago, P. D., Arnau, D., & Arevalillo‐Herráez, M. (2022) · ZDM · doi:10.1007/s11858-022-01396-w · Cited by 51
Metadata
- Authors
- BLOOM, B. S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- BLOOM, BENJAMIN S.
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1984-06
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 4-16
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2172010324
- Cited by
- 2,734
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 195 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 131 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 129 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 112 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 39.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- group instruction, one-on-one tutoring, learning mastery, conventional instruction, corrective procedures, academic performance, tutoring effectiveness
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