The DOI matches its Crossref record; 25 of the 25 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The 2 Sigma Problem: The Search for Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring
Abstract
T w o University of Chicago doctoral students in education, Anania (1982, 1983) and Burke (1984), completed dissertations in which they compared student learning under the following three conditions of instruction: 1. Conventional. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. Tests are given periodically for marking the students. 2. Mastery Learning. Students learn the subject matter in a class with about 30 students per teacher. The instruction is the same as in the conventional class (usually with the same teacher). Formative tests (the same tests used with the conventional group) are given for feedback followed by corrective procedures and parallel formative tests to determine the extent to which the students have mastered the subject matter. 3. Tutoring. Students learn the subject matter with a good tutor for each student (or for two or three students simultaneously). This tutoring instruction is followed periodically by formative tests, feedback-corrective procedures, and parallel formative tests as in the mastery learning classes. It should be pointed out that the need for corrective work under tutoring is very small.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“skills vary within individuals based on goals, emotional states, and contextual supportsproducing a child's developmental range”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“a child's performance within that range can be optimized under conditions of high, personalized support”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“Bloom found that students who received effective one-on-one tutoring through a mastery learning framework performed two standard deviations better than students who did not.”
From Malleability, plasticity, and individuality: How children learn and develop in context1 (2019) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“One-to-one tutoring is an effective teaching method (Bloom, 1984).”
From Towards the Pedagogical Steering of Large Language Models for Tutoring: A Case Study with Modeling Productive Failure (2025) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
In the citing paper
“We believe that the increased learning from structured AI tutoring is largely due to its ability to offer personalized feedback on demand—just as one-on-one tutoring from a (human) expert is superior to classroom instruction15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“While the advantages of personalized instruction are clear, this model of education cannot scale to meet the needs of a large number of students15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Working with an expert personal tutor is generally regarded as the most efficient form of education15.”
From AI tutoring outperforms in-class active learning: an RCT introducing a novel research-based design in an authentic educational setting (2025) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“More focused effort on developing computer-based tutoring systems in particular started following the findings of Bloom (Bloom, 1984)—students who received tutoring in addition to group classes fared two standard deviations better than those who only participated in group classes.”
From Proactive and reactive engagement of artificial intelligence methods for education: a review (2023) · cites this paper as Bloom, 1984
Citations
Cites
From dissertation abstracts international
(1974) · ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics · doi:10.1145/988616.988619 · Cited by 12,208
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain
Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1966) · Cited by 4,624
Self-citationThe use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material.
Ausubel, D. P. (1960) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0046669 · Cited by 1,457
Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings
Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C.-L. C. (1982) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312019002237 · Cited by 1,138
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain
Blyth, W. A. L., Bloom, B., & Krathwohl, D. R. (1966) · British Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.2307/3119730 · Cited by 1,123
Self-citationBrophy, J. E., & Good, T. L. (1970) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029908 · Cited by 922
Slavin, R. E. (1980) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543050002315 · Cited by 771
Improving the Productivity of America's Schools.
Walberg, H. J. (1984) · Educational leadership · Cited by 731
Jackson, D. R. (2023) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781071840801.n92 · Cited by 418
Socio‐psychological Environments and Learning: a quantitative synthesis
Haertel, G. D., Walberg, H. J., & Haertel, E. H. (1981) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1080/0141192810070103 · Cited by 354
Research works printed but not linked: 13
- Anania J, 1982, Dissertation Abstracts International, 42, 4269A
- Bloom BS, 1980, Phi Delta Kappan, 61, 6
- Burke AJ, 1984, Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 2025A
- DaveRHThe identification and measurement of environment process variables that are related to educational achievement1963(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- DolanLJThe affective correlates of home concern and support, instructional quality, and achievement1980(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- JanhomSEducating parents to educate their children1983(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- Leyton FS, 1983, Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 974A
- MevarechZRThe role of teaching-learning strategies and feed-back-corrective procedures in developing higher cognitive achievement1980(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- NordinABThe effects of different qualities of instruction on selected cognitive, affective, and time variables1979(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- Nordin AB, 1980, Evaluation: in Education: An International Review Series, 4, 2
- Tenenbaum G, 1982, Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 1822A
- WolfRMThe identification and measurement of home environmental process variables that are related to intelligence1964(Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago)
- Wolf RM, 1966, Testing Problems in Perspective
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 1,005
Identifying Effective Moves in Tutoring: On the Refinement of Dialogue Act Annotation Schemes
Vail, A. K., & Boyer, K. E. (2014) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-07221-0_24 · Cited by 35
“It has been widely demonstrated that one-on-one tutoring is more effective than many other forms of instruction [1, 2].”
BackgroundThe Figure and the Ground of Constructive Brain Functioning: Beyond Explicit Memory Processes
Iran‐Nejad, A., Mash, G. E., & Clements, A. D. (1992) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2704_5 · Cited by 35
Bush, M. D., & Mott, J. (2009) · Educational technology: The magazine for managers of change in education · Cited by 35
Mainstreaming AIED into Education?
Cumming, G., & McDougall, A. (2000) · HAL · Cited by 35
Intelligent tutoring systems have forgotten the tutor
Heffernan, N. T. (1998) · CHI Conference Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI EA) · doi:10.1145/286498.286524 · Cited by 35
“Bloom (1984) reported that human tutors could leads to an effect-size of 2 sigma over ordinary classroom instruction (but this result has not been replicated).”
BackgroundEffectiveness of PBL curricula
Colliver, J. A. (2000) · Medical Education · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2000.0818a.x · Cited by 35
Higgins, S., & Katsipataki, M. (2016) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2016.1166486 · Cited by 37
Martin, A. J., Collie, R. J., Kennett, R., Liu, D., Ginns, P., Sudimantara, L. B., Dewi, E. W., & Rüschenpöhler, L. (2025) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2025.102723 · Cited by 51
Doleck, T., Basnet, R. B., Poitras, E., & Lajoie, S. P. (2015) · Journal of Computers in Education · doi:10.1007/s40692-015-0040-3 · Cited by 34
“ITSs provide learners with a one-on-one tutoring experience, which as Bloom (1984) found, can result in learning outcomes two standard deviations above regular classroom instruction.”
BackgroundDuckietown: An Innovative Way to Teach Autonomy
Tani, J., Paull, L., Zuber, M. T., Rus, D. L., How, J. P., Leonard, J. J., & Censi, A. (2017) · Advances in intelligent systems and computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55553-9_8 · Cited by 34
Enhancing learning by Open Learner Model (OLM) driven data design
Kay, J., Bartimote-Aufflick, K., Kitto, K., Kummerfeld, B., Liu, D., & Reimann, P. (2022) · Computers and Education Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100069 · Cited by 45
Shaping productive help-seeking behavior during robot-child tutoring interactions
Ramachandran, A., Litoiu, A., & Scassellati, B. M. (2016) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri.2016.7451759 · Cited by 34
“There has been a large body of research demonstrating that students that receive one-on-one tutoring perform, on average, one to two standard deviations better than students learning via conventional classroom instruction when tested on the same material [1], [2].”
Background(2010) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 34
Knowledge Integration and Displaced Volume
Linn, M. C., & Eylon, B. (2000) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1023/a:1009451808539 · Cited by 34
THE READING RECOVERY APPROACH TO PREVENTIVE EARLY INTERVENTION: AS GOOD AS IT GETS?
Tunmer, W. E. (2003) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702710390227378 · Cited by 34
“Research has clearly demonstrated that regardless of the subject matter taught, one-to-one instruction is much more effective than classroom instruction (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundPassively Classifying Student Mood and Performance within Intelligent Tutors
Sottilare, R. A., & Proctor, M. D. (2012) · Cited by 34
An Experimental Evaluation of Logiocando, an Intelligent Tutoring Hypermedia System
Lanzilotti, R., & Roselli, T. (2007) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.3233/irg-2007-17(1)03 · Cited by 34
“Research in education indicates that private tutoring has proven to be as much as four times as educationally effective as a normal classroom setting, and 98% of students perform better with private tutors (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundEffective Classroom Programs for Students at Risk.
Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (1987) · Cited by 34
A study of sustainable assessment theory in higher education tutorials
Beck, R. J., Skinner, W. F., & Schwabrow, L. A. (2011) · Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education · doi:10.1080/02602938.2011.630978 · Cited by 33
“In an experimental study of K-12 students, Bloom (1984) demonstrated that tutorial instruction had two-standard deviation superiority over all other forms of instruction.”
BackgroundPerformance gains from adaptive eXtended Reality training fueled by artificial intelligence
Stanney, K. M., Archer, J., Skinner, A. D., Horner, C., Hughes, C. L., Brawand, N., Martin, E., Sanchez, S. A., Moralez, L. A., Fidopiastis, C., et al. (2021) · The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation Applications Methodology Technology · doi:10.1177/15485129211064809 · Cited by 36
“Adaptive individualized learning paths have been shown to substantially reduce time to proficiency and increase ultimate outcome performance, perhaps by as much as one to two standard deviations.(29,30,31) These gains are robust, as a metaanalysis of adaptive instruction studies demonstrated positive effect sizes that…”
BackgroundFrom TQM to learning organisation
Konidari, V., & Abernot, Y. (2006) · International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management · doi:10.1108/02656710610637523 · Cited by 33
Blankson, J., & Kyei-Blankson, L. (2008) · The Journal of Interactive Learning Research · Cited by 33
Dialog Convergence and Learning
Ward, A., & Litman, D. J. (2007) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 33
L’évaluation des apprentissages en contexte scolaire
Lopez, L. M., & Laveault, D. (2014) · Mesure et évaluation en éducation · doi:10.7202/1024962ar · Cited by 33
Instructional interventions in computer-based tutoring
Corbett, A. T., & Trask, H. J. (2000) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/332040.332412 · Cited by 33
“A one standard deviation effect size is two or three times larger than the average obtained by conventional computerbased instruction [5], and about half as large as the effect size that can be achieved by individual human tutors [4].”
BackgroundIssues and Approaches for Developing Learner-Centered Technology
Quintana, C., Krajcik, J. S., & Soloway, E. M. (2003) · Advances in computers · doi:10.1016/s0065-2458(03)57006-1 · Cited by 33
“This approach was inspired by the oft-cited work of Bloom [10], who noted that students receiving individualized instruction perform better than students who received more traditional classroom instruction.”
BackgroundLearning Programming by Solving Problems
Kumar, A. N. (2003) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-35619-8_4 · Cited by 33
“It compares favorably with the result that individual human tutors can bring students 2 sigma above normal classroom instruction [6].”
BackgroundA student model for object-oriented design and programming
Fang, W. H., Moritz, S. H., Parvez, S. M., & Blank, G. D. (2005) · doi:10.5555/1059888.1059954 · Cited by 33
“Bloom [6] also reported that students have a better grasp of material working with a private tutor than attending traditional classroom lectures.”
BackgroundRequirements and design strategies for open source interactive computer science eBooks
Korhonen, A., Naps, T. L., Boisvert, C. R., Crescenzi, P., Karavirta, V., Mannila, L., Miller, B., Morrison, B. B., Rodger, S. H., Ross, R., et al. (2013) · doi:10.1145/2543882.2543886 · Cited by 32
Intelligent and Adaptive Tutoring Systems: How to Integrate Learners
Bagheri, M. M. (2015) · International Journal of Education · doi:10.5296/ije.v7i2.7079 · Cited by 32
“Additionally, the pioneering research by Bloom demonstrated the superiority of one-to-one over group instruction with outstanding results (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundExpert System in the Application of Learning Models with Forward Chaining Method
Hayadi, B. H., Bastian, A., Rukun, K., Jalinus, N., Lizar, Y., & Guci, A. (2018) · International Journal of Engineering & Technology · doi:10.14419/ijet.v7i2.29.14269 · Cited by 32
Lane, H. C., & D’Mello, S. K. (2018) · Educational communications and technology: issues and innovations · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-02631-8_5 · Cited by 52
LEADOR: A Method for End-To-End Participatory Design of Autonomous Social Robots
Winkle, K., Senft, E., & Lemaignan, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2021.704119 · Cited by 37
“This exactly evidences that notion that human teachers can tailor their teaching to a (robot) learner’s progress [8, 35] In the second study, we were able to demonstrate mutual shaping in the way the fitness instructor used the robot differently for different participants and/or at different stages of…”
The ELEKTRA Ontology Model: A Learner-Centered Approach to Resource Description
Kickmeier-Rust, M., & Albert, D. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-78139-4_8 · Cited by 32
“Psychologists and educationists have since reported that carefully designed individualized tutoring produces the best learning for most people (e.g., [ 2 ]).”
BackgroundPayne, V. L., Medvedeva, O., Legowski, E. A., Castine, M., Tseytlin, E., Jukic, D. M., & Crowley, R. S. (2009) · Artificial Intelligence in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2009.07.002 · Cited by 32
“A number of studies have documented the effectiveness of human tutors [25—27] and suggest that this effectiveness results from simultaneously promoting increasing autonomy while providing guidance that prevents frustration and confusion [28].”
BackgroundEvaluating authoring tools for teachers as instructional designers
Ainsworth, S. E., & Fleming, P. (2005) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2005.01.010 · Cited by 32
“Bloom (1984) found that one-to-one tutoring by expert tutors, when compared to traditional whole class teaching, improves students learning by a 2 sigma effect size.”
iStart: A Web-Based Reading Strategy Intervention That Improves Students's Science Comprehension.
O’Reilly, T., Sinclair, G. P., & McNamara, D. S. (2004) · Cited by 32
Post-questioning, concept mapping and feedback: a distance education field experiment
Bernard, R. M., & Naidu, S. (1992) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.1992.tb00309.x · Cited by 36
Curriculum knowledge representation and manipulation in knowledge-based tutoring systems
Zhou, G., Wang, J. T.-L., & Ng, P. A. (1996) · IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering · doi:10.1109/69.542023 · Cited by 32
Tetzlaff, L., Edelsbrunner, P. A., Schmitterer, A. M. A., Hartmann, U., & Brod, G. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09830-5 · Cited by 37
“The promises of individualization are associated with the impressive effects of one-on-one in-person tutoring (Bloom, 1984; VanLehn, 2011).”
What distance learning students want from an AI Digital Assistant
Rienties, B., Domingue, J., Duttaroy, S., Herodotou, C., Tessarolo, F. M., & Whitelock, D. M. (2024) · Distance Education · doi:10.1080/01587919.2024.2338717 · Cited by 48
“For many decades Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) researchers have been chasing the “Bloom dream” (Bloom, 1984), whereby AI technology can dramatically uplift student attainment through the provision of high-quality personalized learning.”
A conceptual model for game based intelligent tutoring systems
Mills, C., & Dalgarno, B. (2007) · ASCILITE Publications · doi:10.65106/apubs.2007.2610 · Cited by 31
“deviations in learning performance (Bloom 1984), educational researchers have investigated intelligent tutoring systems as a means of providing cost effective yet personalised tuition.”
BackgroundFrom Predictive Models to Instructional Policies.
Rollinson, J., & Brunskill, E. (2015) · Educational Data Mining · Cited by 32
A Framework for Design of Conversational Agents to Support Health Self-Care for Older Adults
Morrow, D. G., Lane, H. C., & Rogers, W. A. (2020) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720820964085 · Cited by 34
“Over time, computer- based learning environments modeled aftereffectivehumantutors(Bloom, 1984) have become more interactive, social, and emotionally aware.”
BackgroundA Flexible Future Education Model—Strategies Drawn from Teaching during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Srinivasan, S., Ramos, J. A. L., & Muhammad, N. (2021) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci11090557 · Cited by 43
“For example, interviews of students to understand their comprehension of the various topics, focus group transcripts, portfolios, and open-book exams that focus on the upper levels of Bloom’s taxonomy [71] and challenge-based learning that would require students to undertake projects that employ the concepts and princ…”
BackgroundChung, G. K. W. K., Shel, T. A., & Kaiser, W. J. (2006) · The Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment (Boston College) · Cited by 31
Tutors and tutorials: students' perceptions in a New Zealand university
Retna, K. S., Chong, E. K., & Cavana, R. Y. (2009) · Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management · doi:10.1080/13600800902974336 · Cited by 31
“Tutoring, according to some studies, has been considered to be an effective method of instruction that has played an important role in student retention and quality undergraduate education (Bloom, 1984 ; Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982 ).”
MethodStudents' Perceptions of Two Hypothetical Teachers' Instructional Adaptations for Low Achievers
Vaughn, S. R., Schumm, J. S., Niarhos, F. J., & Gordon, J. (1993) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/461752 · Cited by 31
Wheeler, J. L., & Regian, J. W. (1999) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0747-5632(99)00021-7 · Cited by 31
“Research has shown that private tutoring (by humans) can increase learning by two standard deviations beyond group methods of instruction (Bloom, 1984).”
BackgroundIntelligent Learning Environments wthin Blended Learning for Ensuring Effective C Programming Course
Kose, U. (2012) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence & Applications · doi:10.5121/ijaia.2012.3109 · Cited by 31
“Because they promote more effective learning than the traditional (face to face) instruction [3].”
BackgroundSabourin, J. L., Rowe, J., Mott, B., & Lester, J. C. (2013) · Journal of Educational Data Mining · doi:10.5281/zenodo.3554607 · Cited by 31
“INTRODUCTION One-on-one, face-to-face human tutoring has long been considered the gold standard for effective instruction because of its significant pedagogical benefits compared to traditional classroom lectures [Bloom, 1984].”
BackgroundInfluentialLearner Control and e-Learning: Taking Stock and Moving Forward
Brown, K. G., Howardson, G. N., & Fisher, S. L. (2016) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062344 · Cited by 35
Wiggins, J. B., Grafsgaard, J. F., Boyer, K. E., Wiebe, E., & Lester, J. C. (2016) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-015-0091-7 · Cited by 31
“One-on-one tutoring has been shown to be more effective than conventional classroom settings (Bloom 1984).”
BackgroundLearning SQL with a computerized tutor
Mitrović, A. (1998) · ACM SIGCSE Bulletin · doi:10.1145/274790.274318 · Cited by 31
Adaptive Bayesian Networks for Multilevel Student Modelling
Millán, E., Pérez-de-la-Cruz, J.-L., & Suárez, E. (2000) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/3-540-45108-0_57 · Cited by 31
“The adaptive capabilities of tutors (human or not) is what makes them really effective, because, as shown in the study by Bloom [2], the best results are obtained when the learning process is individualized for each particular student.”
BackgroundSampson, J. P., Peterson, G. W., & Reardon, R. C. (1989) · Journal of Career Development · doi:10.1007/bf01353007 · Cited by 31
Rajan, S., Craig, S. D., Gholson, B., Person, N. K., & Graesser, A. C. (2001) · International Journal of Speech Technology · doi:10.1023/a:1017319110294 · Cited by 31
“Human tutors with modest expertise enhance learning by .4 to 2.3 standard deviation units compared to classroom and other control conditions ( Bloom, 1984; Cohen et al., 1982; Graesser and Person, 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialAugmented Education in the Global Age
Araya, D., & Marber, P. (2023) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003230762 · Cited by 36
Beyond Mastery: Toward a Broader Understanding of AI in Education
Tuomi, I. (2023) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-023-00343-4 · Cited by 45
A Manifesto for a Pro-Actively Responsible AI in Education
Porayska‐Pomsta, K. (2023) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-023-00346-1 · Cited by 30
“This ambition has been bolstered most notably by the Bloom (1984) studies, which are still routinely cited throughout the AIED literature as a key justification and motivation for the field.”
Henkel, O., Horne-Robinson, H., Kozhakhmetova, N., & Lee, A. (2024) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-64315-6_34 · Cited by 30
Mentoring for protégé character development
Moberg, D. J. (2008) · Mentoring & Tutoring Partnership in Learning · doi:10.1080/13611260701801056 · Cited by 31
Kim, Y. A., & Lim, J. H. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031027 · Cited by 32
“Traditionally, human one-on-one tutoring has been considered the best form of instruction because it increased learning by two standard deviations as compared to the group instruction in a classroom (Bloom, 1984).”
Masikunas, G., Panayiotidis, A., & Burke, L. (2007) · Research in Learning Technology · doi:10.3402/rlt.v15i1.10903 · Cited by 33
A Scalable Solution for Adaptive Problem Sequencing and Its Evaluation
Kumar, A. N. (2006) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/11768012_18 · Cited by 30
“Learning is most effective when it is adapted to the needs of the learner [4].”
BackgroundCognitive tutors as modeling tools and instructional models
Koedinger, K. R. (2001) · The MIT Press eBooks · Cited by 30
Emerging educational technologies: Tensions and synergy
Spector, J. M. (2013) · Journal of King Saud University - Computer and Information Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jksuci.2013.10.009 · Cited by 30
“There is the well known paper by Bloom (1984) on individual tutoring in which individualized one-to-one tutoring resulted in a two standard deviation improvement in learning in several subject areas.”
Growth and maturity of intelligent tutoring systems: a status report
Woolf, B. P., Beck, J. E., Eliot, C. R., & Stern, M. K. (2001) · Cited by 30
The Central Importance of Student Modelling to Intelligent Tutoring
McCalla, G. I. (1992) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-77681-6_8 · Cited by 30
Learning Mathematics in Different Mastery Environments
Mevarech, Z. R. (1991) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.1991.10886019 · Cited by 31
Wolf, C. (2011) · RMIT Research Repository (RMIT University Library) · doi:10.25439/rmt.27340215 · Cited by 28
Tutoring for transfer of technical competence.
Gott, S. P., Kane, R. S., & Lesgold, A. M. (1995) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e447862004-001 · Cited by 30
Scaffolding group learning in a collaborative networked environment
Wu, A. S., Farrell, R., & Singley, M. K. (2002) · Computer-supported collaborative learning/The Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Conference · doi:10.3115/1658616.1658651 · Cited by 30
“Bloom (1984) demonstrated that tutoring raises students’ performance by .40 standard deviations with peer tutors and 2.0 standard deviations with experienced tutors.”
BackgroundInfluentialKonijn, E. A., Smakman, M., & van den Berghe, R. (2020) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119011071.iemp0318 · Cited by 35
Not Too Late: Improving Academic Outcomes Among Adolescents
Guryan, J., Ludwig, J., Bhatt, M., Cook, P., Davis, J. M. V., Dodge, K., Farkas, G., Fryer, R., Mayer, S., Pollack, H., et al. (2021) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w28531 · Cited by 25
“5 “the best learning conditions we can devise” (Bloom, 1984, p. 4).”
InfluentialReinventing Systems for Equity
Darling‐Hammond, L. (2024) · ECNU Review of Education · doi:10.1177/20965311241237238 · Cited by 49
“Bloom (1984) found that traditional teaching focused on getting through the book — that is, “ teach, test, grade ”— produces outcomes that mimic a normal curve of student performance with wide differentials among students.”
BackgroundOntology based approach to Bayesian student model design
Grubišić, A., Stankov, S., & Peraić, I. (2013) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2013.03.041 · Cited by 29
Ros, M. Z. (2018) · Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED) · doi:10.6018/red/57/10 · Cited by 47
Lane, H. C., & Schroeder, N. L. (2022) · ACM eBooks · doi:10.1145/3563659.3563669 · Cited by 34
“For example, one of the best forms of education known to humankind is to learn from an expert human tutor in a 1-1, face-to-face interaction [Bloom, 1984].”
Individual differences in gameplay and learning
Rowe, J., Shores, L. R., Mott, B., & Lester, J. C. (2010) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/1822348.1822371 · Cited by 30
Learning to Assess Low-level Conceptual Understanding
Nielsen, R. D., Ward, W., & Martin, J. (2008) · The Florida AI Research Society · Cited by 29
A knowledge-tracing model of learning from a social tagging system
Pirolli, P. L. T., & Kairam, S. (2012) · User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction · doi:10.1007/s11257-012-9132-1 · Cited by 28
“This extreme form of personalized learning can yield up to two standard deviations of improvement relative to less-personalized classroom instruction (Bloom 1984).”
BackgroundShenderovich, Y., Thurston, A., & Miller, S. J. (2015) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2015.03.007 · Cited by 36
“…learning Cross-Age Tutoring: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cross-Age Tutoring in Kindergarten and Elementary School Settings Individualized tutoring is considered to be one of the most effective ways to promote improved educational outcomes (Bloom, 1984; Elbaum, 2000; Ireson, 2006).”
BackgroundA System of Equity Indicators for Educational Systems
Meuret, D. (2002) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47579-0_6 · Cited by 29
Learners' questions and comprehension in a tutoring setting.
Fishbein, H. D., Eckart, T., Lauver, E., Leeuwen, R. V., & Langmeyer, D. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.163 · Cited by 29
Does Categorical Teacher Certification Benefit the Mildly Handicapped Child?
Marston, D. (1987) · Exceptional Children · doi:10.1177/001440298705300504 · Cited by 29
“Bloom's (1984) research indicates the most powerful variable is one-to-one tutoring.”
BackgroundLearning domain knowledge for teaching procedural skills
Angros, R., Johnson, W. L., Rickel, J. W., & Scholer, A. (2002) · Adaptive Agents and Multi-Agents Systems · doi:10.1145/545056.545134 · Cited by 29
Teaching basic experimental design with an intelligent tutor
Kuhl, P. K., Lim, S., Guerriero, S., & Damme, D. V. (2019) · Educational research and innovation · doi:10.1787/b91eb585-en · Cited by 28
“That is, they don’t include scaffolding for students as they set up their own experiments or provide feedback, even though such instructional actions have been shown to promote student learning [23 - 25]).”
Flip or Flop: Are Math Teachers Using Khan Academy as Envisionedby Sal Khan?
Cargile, L. A., & Harkness, S. S. (2015) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-015-0900-8 · Cited by 28
Hrastinski, S., Stenbom, S., Benjaminsson, S., & Jansson, M. (2019) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2019.1583674 · Cited by 29
“Individual tutoring and its effect was studied by Bloom (1984) and his PhD students (Anania, 1983; Burke, 1983).”
BackgroundInfluentialReading Fluency in Young Elementary School Age Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Children
Easterbrooks, S. R., & Lederberg, A. R. (2020) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/deafed/enaa024 · Cited by 32
How Personality Matters for Education Research
Jach, H. K., Bardach, L., & Murayama, K. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09807-4 · Cited by 47
“How to best personalise learning has long been a solid (and still unsolved) question in education practice and research (Bloom, 1984; Dockterman, 2018).”
BackgroundVisual modality research in virtual and mixed reality simulation
Stevens, J. A., Kincaid, P., & Sottilare, R. A. (2015) · The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation Applications Methodology Technology · doi:10.1177/1548512915569742 · Cited by 28
Pol, H. J., Harskamp, E. G., & Suhre, C. J. M. (2007) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2007.04.002 · Cited by 29
Learning from a Computer Tutor with Natural Language Capabilities
MICHAEL, J. A., Rovick, A. A., Glass, M., Zhou, Y., & Evens, M. W. (2003) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1076/ilee.11.3.233.16543 · Cited by 28
“One-on-one tutoring is known to result in learning outcomes that are significantly greater than those produced by usual classroom activities (Bloom, 1984; Cohen, Kulik, & Kulik, 1982; Graesser, Person, & Magliano, 1995).”
BackgroundAtelier: Repurposing Expert Crowdsourcing Tasks as Micro-internshipsPreprint
Suzuki, R., Salehi, N., Lam, M. S., Marroquin, J. C., & Bernstein, M. S. (2016) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1602.06634 · Cited by 28
The development and analysis of tutorial dialogues in AutoTutor Lite
Wolfe, C. R., Widmer, C. L., Reyna, V. F., Hu, X., Cedillos, E. M., Fisher, C. R., Brust-Renck, P. G., Williams, T. C., Vannucchi, I. D., & Weil, A. M. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0352-z · Cited by 27
“Human one-on-one tutoring is arguably the “gold standard” for teaching complex conceptual material, with trained human tutors reportedly producing gains as high as two standard deviations over standard classroom practice, sometimes labeled the “2 sigma effect” (Bloom, 1984; Chi, Siler, Jeong, Yamauchi, & Hausmann, 200…”
BackgroundFactors Influencing Self‐Efficacy Judgments of University Students in Foreign Language Tutoring
MATTHEWS, P. H. (2010) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2010.01057.x · Cited by 27
Metadata
- Authors
- BLOOM, B. S.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Corresponding author
- BLOOM, BENJAMIN S.
- Venue
- Educational Researcher
- Published
- 1984-06
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 4-16
- ISSN
- 0013-189X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-102X
- OpenAlex
- W2172010324
- Cited by
- 2,734
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 195 · 2025: 144 · 2024: 131 · 2023: 99 · 2022: 103 · 2021: 84 · 2020: 129 · 2019: 88 · 2018: 122 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 119 · 2014: 112 · 2013: 107 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 39.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Researcher (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Learning Styles and Cognitive Differences
- Keywords
- group instruction, one-on-one tutoring, learning mastery, conventional instruction, corrective procedures, academic performance, tutoring effectiveness
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
