The DOI matches its Crossref record; 133 of the 133 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Stress and Parents of Children with Autism: A Review of Literature
Abstract
The purpose of this review is twofold. The first is to synthesize factors that impact parents' experiences of caring for a child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD); the second is to identify factors that impact parental stress and parental decision-making to use autism services or not. Parents of children with ASD score higher on levels of stress than other groups of parents. The daily challenges of caring for the child are endless and effect all aspects of the child's care as well as the parent's mental health and ability to manage the needs of the child and family. Understanding more about the challenges parents face will provide direction for research, intervention development, and practice. Accordingly, a search was conducted using CINAHL and Medline. Inclusion criteria included articles available in full text, published in English, and focused on children with ASD distinct from other diagnoses, as well as parental experiences of caring for a child with ASD. Articles (N = 132) that met the inclusion criteria were summarized. Challenging aspects of the child's diagnosis and care are discussed, as well as the factors that impact parental stress and decision-making to use autism services. Recommendations for research and practice include interventional development related to early diagnosis, disparity, access to care, parental decision-making to use autism services, and parental stress management.
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“Parents of children with a neurodevelopmental disorder (NDD) experience more stress than parents of typically developing children.”
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“Research has identified CB as the best predictor of parental stress (5, 9–11).”
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Perceptions of Families of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder during the COVID-19 Crisis
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“Parenting a child with ASD can be stressful (Bonis 2016); meeting the needs of individuals with ASD can be challenging due to the severity and chronicity of the condition, the mental health comorbidities, intensive interventions needed by persons with ASD and the difficulty obtaining services…”
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“ASD is likely to affect the entire family of the person diagnosed with this disorder due to a signi fi cant level of stress associated with the permanency of this disorder, the accompanying co-morbidities, and insuf fi cient health support for autistic patients [8, 9].”
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“The financial burden arising from the child’s chronic illness has been noted in cardiac and non-cardiac populations.(36,37) Spijkerboer et al(38) found that low socioeconomic status classified by occupation type influenced greater psychologic distress in parents of children treated for CHD.”
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“The lack of efficacy of the diet may be explained by low adherence to the diet restriction due to severity of ASD in the child and/or parental difficulties with supplying GFCF food, possibly due to the added burden of a strict elimination diet in addition to the often stressed family life of having children with ASD […”
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“There are major challenges in routine care planning in children with disabilities which affect parents’ health and ability in managing children and family needs (Bonis, 2016).”
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Mathew, N. E., Burton, K., Schierbeek, A., Črnčec, R., Walter, A., & Eapen, V. (2019) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v9.i2.30 · Cited by 66
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Levante, A., Petrocchi, S., Bianco, F., Castelli, I., Colombi, C., Keller, R., Narzisi, A., Masi, G., & Lecciso, F. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11060808 · Cited by 64
“A huge amount of literature has examined general distress in families with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [1].”
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“…such as the lengthy and complex diagnostic process, socioeconomic status and financial burden, identifying, securing, and maintaining appropriate support services, professional and social support, worry about the future, and public stigma (Bones et al., 2019; Bonis, 2016; Prata et al., 2019).”
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Self-Compassion: a Protective Factor for Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
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“Some parents experience criticism and judgement from their family members regarding their child’s behaviours (Bonis 2016), and friends and family members may make comparisons between children with ASD and typically developing children (Neely-Barnes et al. 2011), demonstrating lack of understanding…”
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“At the same time, families of children on the autism spectrum often face lost wages and lower incomes as a result of one parent (most often, a mother) leaving the workforce in order to manage their child’s care (Bonis, 2016).”
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Juvin, J., Sadeg, S., Julien-Sweerts, S., & Zebdi, R. (2022) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-021-04923-y · Cited by 44
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Fitzgerald, J., & Gallagher, L. (2021) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1744629521995378 · Cited by 45
“…family research has focused on intellectual disability irrespective of aetiology or has focused on more common conditions linked with intellectual disability such as autism spectrum disorder (ASD) or Down syndrome (Bonis, 2016; Fairthorne et al., 2016; Hill and Rose, 2009; Phillips et al., 2017).”
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“Also, previous studies have shown parents of children with ASD experience higher levels of stress, rumination, and poorer well-being than parents of children with typical development (Bonis 2016; Carpita et al.”
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“Moreover, parents’ decisions on their children’s treatment can be affected by high levels of stress (Bonis, 2016).”
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“These high levels of stress can significantly compromise the parent–child relationship, showing the strain related to caring for a child with ASD (Bonis, 2016; Shepherd, Landon, Taylor, & Goedeke, 2018).”
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“It is also remarkable, given the emotional strain that raising a child with NDDs can put on the family [132].”
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“The high level of stress associated with the pandemic worsened relationships in families in which a child with ASD was being brought up [11,12], especially since these families experienced high levels of stress even before the pandemic.”
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“Research regarding parents has increased markedly in the past years, particularly since it is argued that an increased understanding of the challenges parents face could provide direction for research (Bonis, 2016; Hayes & Watson, 2013).”
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“Where interventions have overcome such barriers, parents often do not have the flexibility and time to attend regular meetings or take part in studies assessing intervention effectiveness (Arksey et al., 2003; Bonis, 2016; McGill et al., 2006; Spain et al., 2017).”
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A Systematic Review of Parental Self-Efficacy in Parents of Autistic Children
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“…accompanying life changes (e.g., changes to the parent’s relationships with others, their daily routines, and their hopes for their child’s future; Bonis, 2016; Dale et al., 2006; Galpin et al., 2018; Russell & McCloskey, 2016; Smith-Young et al., 2022), parenting stress and PSE may be more…”
InfluentialPrimary care and mental health: Where do we go from here?
Moise, N., Wainberg, M. L., & Shah, R. N. (2021) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v11.i7.271 · Cited by 36
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“Reviews of research and meta-analytic studies provide convincing evidence that parents of children with autism experience considerably more stress than parents of typically developing children (Bonis, 2016), and this exposure to chronic stress undermines parental health (Miodrag & Hodapp, 2010).”
BackgroundAkhani, A., Dehghani, M. R., Gharraee, B., & Shooshtari, M. H. (2021) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102735 · Cited by 28
A Review of Parent-Implemented Early Start Denver Model for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
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“…and economic circumstances (e.g., access to resources, stigma associated with mental health, financial burden of care), can compound to distress parents and affect both child and overall family outcomes by means of transactional pathways (Bonis, 2016; Iadarola et al., 2019; Rodriguez et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialFrom ‘Refrigerator Mothers’ to Empowered Advocates: The Evolution of the Autism Parent
Cleary, M. L., West, S., & McLean, L. (2022) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2022.2115594 · Cited by 27
“Therapies that build skills such as social skills and communication can facilitate making of friends and prevention of bullying (Bonis, 2016; Laugeson et al., 2009) whilst participation in behavioural support strategies can equip parents with the tools to assist with emotional regulation and…”
BackgroundInfluentialAithal, S., Karkou, V., Kuppusamy, G., & Pushpavathi, M. (2019) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2019.04.003 · Cited by 30
‘I just rolled up my sleeves’: Mothers’ perspectives on raising girls on the autism spectrum
Fowler, K., & O’Connor, C. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320956876 · Cited by 26
“Parental responses can depend on many factors, including the severity of challenging behaviours, access to services, socio-economic status and lone parenting (Bonis, 2016; Bromley et al., 2004; Stuart & McGrew, 2009).”
BackgroundCouples’ Experiences of Parenting a Child After an Autism Diagnosis: A Qualitative Study
Downes, N., Lichtlé, J., Lamore, K., Orêve, M.-J., & Cappe, É. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04744-5 · Cited by 39
“For example, stress leads to more conflict and affects parents’ ability to support each other to manage their child’s daily care (Thullen and Bonsall 2017; Bonis 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialSocial Support and Parenting Stress in Hispanic Parents of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Martinez, V. C., & Turnage, D. M. (2022) · Issues in Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1080/01612840.2022.2100949 · Cited by 26
“Particularly, child problem behaviors (Bonis, 2016; Enea & Rusu, 2020; McStay et al., 2014), such as hyperactivity, aggression, inattention, destruction, tantrums, and environmental conditions (Derguy et al.”
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“Parents of children with ASD often experience daily life as stressful and suffer mental health problems to a greater extent than other parents.(20,21) Raising a child with autism is described as strenuous and challenging,(22) but that it can also lead to personal growth.”
BackgroundLanyi, J., Mannion, A., Chen, J. L., & Leader, G. (2021) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.1080/17518423.2021.1922529 · Cited by 28
“A recently published review concluded that parents of those with an ASD diagnosis experienced higher levels of stress than any other parent group.(40)”
BackgroundAgarwal, R., Wuyke, G. M., Sharma, U., Burke, S. L., Howard, M. M., Li, T., Sánchez, M., & Bastida, E. (2022) · Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s40489-022-00340-8 · Cited by 32
“…is imperative (Agbaria, 2020; Sopaul, 2019) given that unaddressed stress and anxiety can have adverse effects on the family stemming from the interdependence in a parent–child relationship (Barker et al., 2011; Bones et al., 2019; Bonis, 2016; Dardas & Ahmad, 2014; Reichman et al., 2008).”
Psychometric evaluation of the revised child and family quality of life questionnaire (CFQL-2)
Frazier, T. W., Hyland, A. C., Markowitz, L. A., Speer, L. L., & Diekroger, E. A. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101474 · Cited by 24
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Emotion dysregulation in autism: Severity and correlates in early childhood
Northrup, J. B., Hartman, A. G., MacKenzie, K. T., Sivathasan, S., Eldeeb, S. M., & Mazefsky, C. A. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3264 · Cited by 28
“…are at least twice as common for autistic children compared to non-autistic children (Reynolds et al., 2019), and parents of autistic children are at significant increased risk for mental health (Bonis, 2016; Estes et al., 2009) and socioeconomic (Montes & Halterman, 2008a, 2008b) challenges.”
Pisula, E., & Banasiak, A. (2019) · Journal of Intellectual Disability Research · doi:10.1111/jir.12681 · Cited by 23
Autistic Mothers of Autistic Children: A Preliminary Study in an Under-Researched Area
Adams, D., Stainsby, M., & Paynter, J. M. (2021) · Autism in Adulthood · doi:10.1089/aut.2020.0078 · Cited by 23
“MS first matched the participants on factors that have shown the strongest associations with parental stress; behavioral challenges 18–20 and adaptive behavior skills.”
Parent perceptions of a group telepractice communication intervention for autism
Garnett, R., Davidson, B. J., & Eadie, P. A. (2022) · Autism & Developmental Language Impairments · doi:10.1177/23969415211070127 · Cited by 30
“Despite the known impact of parent stress on family functioning and managing a child with autism (Bonis, 2016), there has been limited research into the impact of parent-implemented intervention on parent stress levels (Beaudoin et al.”
BackgroundScoping Review on Play-Based Interventions in Autism Spectrum Disorder
López-Nieto, L., Gabucio, L. M. C., Collado, L. T., & de la Hera, M. G. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9091355 · Cited by 28
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“Indeed, much research has documented diminished psychological well-being among parents and family members caring for children diagnosed with NDD (e.g., Bonis 2016; Craig et al. 2016; Dave et al. 2014; Miodrag and Hodapp 2010; Park and Kim 2019; Scherer et al. 2019).”
BackgroundWeinberg, M., Gueta, N., Weinberg, J., Much, M. A., Akawi, A., Sharkia, R. A., & Mahajnah, M. M. (2020) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2020.101712 · Cited by 28
The Route of Stress in Parents of Young Children with and without Autism: A Path-Analysis Study
Leonardi, E., Cerasa, A., Servidio, R. C., Costabile, A., Famà, F. I., Carrozza, C., Spadaro, L., Scifo, R., Baieli, S., Aiello, S., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182010887 · Cited by 31
Celia, T., Freysteinson, W. M., Fredland, N., & Bowyer, P. (2019) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.14213 · Cited by 25
McCafferty, P., & McCutcheon, J. (2020) · Child Care in Practice · doi:10.1080/13575279.2020.1765145 · Cited by 21
“tive review of 132 studies identified that the largest concentration of the literature related to parenting a child(ren) with ASD focused on stress (Bonis, 2016).”
BackgroundMartin, C. A., Sciberras, E., Papadopoulos, N. V., Engel, L., Hiscock, H., Williams, K. J., Howlin, P., McGillivray, J., & Rinehart, N. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04726-7 · Cited by 21
“…attend medical appointments and address school concerns; differences in parental coping styles, with mothers generally using emotional coping and fathers avoidance coping; poor self-efficacy; relationship breakdown; and isolation from family and friends (Bonis 2016; Vasilopoulou and Nisbet 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialHaque, M. A., Salwa, M., Sultana, S., Tasnim, A. F., Towhid, M. I. I., Karim, M. R., & Mamun, M. A. A. (2021) · Journal of Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1177/17446295211002355 · Cited by 23
“In a review paper, Bonis (2016) also described 6 Journal of Intellectual Disabil t es XX(X that this stressful situation is related to the feeling of confusion, denial, decision-making doubt, helplessness, and failure as a parent.”
BackgroundKoukouriki, E., & Soulis, S.-G. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04395-6 · Cited by 27
COPARENTALIDADE NO CONTEXTO FAMILIAR DE CRIANÇAS COM TRANSTORNO DO ESPECTRO AUTISTA
Portes, J. R. M., & Vieira, M. L. (2020) · Psicologia em Estudo · doi:10.4025/psicolestud.v25i0.44897 · Cited by 20
“…de comportamentos dos filhos com TEA interferem nas interações no contexto familiar e podem contribuir para o aumento do estresse parental, principalmente nas mães dessas crianças em comparação com os sintomas de estresse referidos por pais de crianças com outras deficiências (Bonis, 2016).”
BackgroundMothers’ perspectives of co-occurring fatigue in children with autism spectrum disorders
Keville, S., Meek, C., & Ludlow, A. (2021) · Fatigue Biomedicine Health & Behavior · doi:10.1080/21641846.2021.2008169 · Cited by 20
“The interplay between the severity and chronicity of ASD, comorbid mental health issues and often a lack of access to services, makes meeting the needs of individuals with ASD both challenging and stressful [2,3].”
BackgroundFerenc, K., Byrka, K., & Król, M. E. (2022) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221081185 · Cited by 26
“The caregiver burden may be reliant on certain factors, such as emotional and instrumental support from others (Pozo et al., 2014) or access to services (Bonis, 2016).”
BackgroundChristi, R. A., Roy, D., Heung, R., & Flake, E. (2023) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05704-x · Cited by 20
“Medical system-based concerns such as access to care, disparity of services, and perceived parental concerns regarding their health care providers’ knowledge of ASD and lack of communication with their provider have also been positively tied to increased parental stress (Bonis, 2016; Smith et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMethodStress and coping strategies for parenting children with hearing impairment and autism
Ishtiaq, N., Mumtaz, N., & Saqulain, G. (2020) · Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.12669/pjms.36.3.1766 · Cited by 20
The Impact of a Brief Home-Based Intervention on Families with a Child with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Mullan, A., Boyd, K., & McConkey, R. (2020) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-020-09768-4 · Cited by 24
“The emotional support provided by project staff (their ‘listening ear’) may account for this as previous research has suggested (Bonis 2016).”
BackgroundLiving under psychosocial pressure: Perception of mothers of children with autism spectrum disorders
Ebadi, M., Samadi, S. A., Mardani‐Hamooleh, M., & Seyedfatemi, N. (2021) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing · doi:10.1111/jcap.12310 · Cited by 23
McConkey, R. (2020) · Children · doi:10.3390/children7090120 · Cited by 18
“Parents of children with developmental disabilities—mothers especially—often report a lower quality of life [1], poorer physical and mental health [2], increased stress [3] and impaired family functioning [4].”
Backgroundde Jonge, M. V., Boutjdir, M., El‐Korchi, T., Torres, H., Karpur, A., Shih, A. J., & Idrissi, A. E. (2023) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613221150086 · Cited by 22
“They continually prioritize the needs of their autistic child, over the needs of other family members or their own needs, and struggle with the burden of time management, work, and financial constrictions (Bonis, 2016; Boshoff et al., 2016; Gona et al., 2016).”
BackgroundNovak‐Pavlic, M., Rosenbaum, P., & Rezze, B. D. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20216983 · Cited by 18
“The financial and employment challenges, especially for mothers, have also been reported in other studies [38,46].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialHyperscanning to explore social interaction among autistic minds
Zhou, X., & Wong, P. C. M. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105773 · Cited by 21
Marshall, B. L., Kollia, B., Wagner, V. H., & Yablonsky, D. (2017) · Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services · doi:10.3928/02793695-20171128-02 · Cited by 20
“depression, and depression has been identifi ed as being three times more likely in mothers of children with ASD (Bonis, 2016).”
Romney, J., Austin, K. L., Fife, S. T., Sanders, D., & Snyder, H. (2020) · American Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1080/01926187.2020.1813654 · Cited by 17
Koukouriki, E., Soulis, S.-G., & Andreoulakis, E. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320966847 · Cited by 21
“Specifically, parents of children with autism exhibit high levels of parenting stress (Bonis, 2016; Hayes & Watson, 2013) and affective disorders (Cohrs & Leslie, 2017; Fairthorne et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialde Korte, M. W. P., van Dongen‐Boomsma, M., Oosterling, I. J., Buitelaar, J. K., & Staal, W. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-10604-2 · Cited by 16
May, T., & Williams, K. J. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579422001067 · Cited by 16
Autism and ADHD: A Literature Review Regarding Their Impacts on Parental Divorce
Anchesi, S. D., Corallo, F., Cara, M. D., Quartarone, A., Catalioto, R., Cucinotta, F., & Cardile, D. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10030438 · Cited by 23
“[59], even positive factors can influence stress; in fact, they found that both limited prosocial behaviours and behavioural problems were associated with high levels of stress.”
BackgroundAutism in Taiwan and Thailand: Influences of Culture
Westby, C. E., Kai-mei, C., Cheng, L., Jithavech, P., & Maroonroge, S. (2024) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s462864 · Cited by 16
“52,53 Understanding stressors for children with ASD and their caregivers is essential for implementing interventions.”
BackgroundMulay, K. V., Aishworiya, R., Lim, T. S. H., Tan, M. Y., Kiing, J. S. H., Chong, S. C., & Kang, Y. Q. (2020) · Pediatrics & Neonatology · doi:10.1016/j.pedneo.2020.09.003 · Cited by 16
“Caregivers of children with developmental needs experience immense stress at baseline.(16) Living in enclosed quarters with disruption to their daily routine is most likely to exacerbate this stress.”
Taresh, S. M., Ahmad, N. A., Roslan, S. B., Ma’rof, A. M., & Zaid, S. M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17124284 · Cited by 16
Fante, C., Zagaria, A., Dioni, B., Raffin, C., Capelli, F., Manari, T., Lenzo, V., Picione, R. D. L., & Musetti, A. (2024) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102351 · Cited by 15
Decision factors for community providers when referring very young children for autism evaluation
Rosenbaum, M. A., & Gabrielsen, T. P. (2018) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.09.009 · Cited by 15
Mendez, L. M. R., Berkman, K. A., Lam, G. Y. H., & Dawkins, C. (2019) · American Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1080/01926187.2019.1624225 · Cited by 15
Ede, M. O., Okeke, C. I. O., & Obiweluozo, P. E. (2022) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-022-00471-1 · Cited by 17
“Thus, pains, emotional distress, and depression are common among parents of children with varied disabilities (Ayers, 2012; Bonis, 2016; Hodapp & Dykens, 1997).”
BackgroundThe impact of autism spectrum disorder on parent employment: Results from the r‐Kids study
Lynch, F. L., Bulkley, J. E., Varga, A. M., Crawford, P. M., Croen, L., Daida, Y. G., Fombonne, E. J., Hatch, B., Massolo, M. L., & Dickerson, J. F. (2022) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2882 · Cited by 16
“…lifelong neurodevelopmental disorder, the caregiving burden for parents is often very high with increased parental stress and decreased parenting efficacy for both mothers and fathers (Baker-Ericzén et al., 2005; Bonis, 2016; Dabrowska & Pisula, 2010; Karst & Van Hecke, 2012; Picardi et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMarsack‐Topolewski, C. N. (2021) · Journal of Family Social Work · doi:10.1080/10522158.2020.1861157 · Cited by 15
“Due to the social, communication, and behavioral challenges associated with ASD (Koegel et al., 2016; Poon & Sidhu, 2017), many parents are tasked with distinct roles to manage these issues that impact their loved one with ASD (Bonis, 2016).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bonis, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bonis, Susan
- ORCID
- Bonis, Susan
- Venue
- Issues in Mental Health Nursing
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2016-03-03
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 153-163
- ISSN
- 0161-2840 (ISSN-L)
- 1096-4673
- OpenAlex
- W2319420461
- Cited by
- 404
- References
- 132
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 58 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 53 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 2.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Issues in Mental Health Nursing (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family and Disability Support Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Family Caregiving in Mental Illness
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, parental stress, parents of autistic children, parental decision-making, autism services, health care access, early diagnosis, parental mental health, stress management
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adult, Child, Humans, Parents, Stress, Psychological
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